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THE 


ELEMENTS  OF  RHETORIC 


By  JAMES  DE  MILLE,  M.A. 


NEW  YORK 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS 

FRANKLIN     SQUARK 
1882 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1878,  by 

Harper  ^    Brothers, 

In  the  OflScc  of  the  Libranan  of  Congress,  at  WasRington. 


PREFACE. 


The  epigrammatic  saying, ''  Writers  are  not  made  by- 
rhetoric,"  is  not  unfrcqucntly  quoted  as  a  reason  for 
depreciating  a  valuable  study,  and  for  advocating  in 
its  place  the  practice  of  exercises  in  composition.  If 
the  only  aim  of  rhetoric  were  to  make  good  writers, 
this  objection  would  have  to  be  met  and  answered; 
but  if  it  have  another  and  a  broader  purpose,  then  its 
true  character  should  be  clearly  ascertained  and  set 
forth  with  emphasis. 

There  is  an  important  distinction  between  rhetoric 
and  composition.  The  latter  is  concerned  with  prac- 
tical exercises  by  which  the  student  acquires  skill  in 
writing ;  the  former  embraces  that  wide  field  of  sur- 
vey by  which  he  makes  himself  familiar  with  the  qual- 
ities of  literature.  The  province  of  each  is  therefore 
quite  distinct,  and  where  this  is  not  clearly  apprehend- 
ed, there  is  a  danger  lest  the  work  of  rhetoric  as  an 
educational  instrument  may  not  be  sufficiently  appre- 
ciated, and  that  it  may  be  neglected  for  the  more  prac- 
tical but  altogether  different  work  of  exercises  in  com- 
position. 

It  may  be  conceded  that  great  writers,  like  great 
poets,  are  born,  not  made ;  but  for  the  average  mind 
some  training  is  necessary  before  it  can  secure  the  best 
power  of  expression.  The  most  direct  way  towards 
the  attainment  of  skill  and  aptitude  in  this  respect  is 
undoubtedly  afforded  by  the  practice  of  composition  ; 
and  where  this  is  judiciously  carried  out  it  can  hardly 
fail  to  give  to  the  diligent  student  the  habit  of  ready 
and   effective   writing.     But   the    student   cannot    pro- 


iv  Preface. 

ceed  far  without  meeting  with  something  which  lies 
beyond  the  simpler  forms  of  composition.  He  be- 
comes aware  of  the  persuasive  power  of  style,  the 
harmony  of  words,  and  the  ever -varying  features  of 
figurative  expression ;  he  encounters  many  different 
modes  by  which  the  writer  may  accumulate  the  ma- 
terial for  his  work,  classify  his  thoughts,  and  present 
them  in  order.  Such  things  as  these  must  be  con- 
sidered in  every  manual  of  composition ;  and  those 
who  write  much,  and  attain  to  success,  will  generally 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  facts  and  principles  which 
form  the  subject  -  matter  of  rhetorical  works,  even 
though  such  works  may  never  have  been  read.  The 
direct  study  of  these  subjects  in  a  formal  treatise  may 
therefore  be  regarded  as  of  no  little  importance  to 
those  who  wish  to  succeed  as  writers,  since  it  will  give 
them  an  early  and  methodical  knowledge  of  that 
which  otherwise  they  will  only  learn  after  a  long 
period  and  in  an  unmethodical  manner. 

But  while  the  number  of  writers  is  necessarily  lim- 
ited, the  number  of  those  who  love  literature  for  its 
own  sake  is  virtually  unlimited.  The  reading  of 
books  is  a  very  different  thing  from  the  writing  of 
books;  and  the  class  of  readers  must  always  far  out- 
number the  class  of  writers.  It  is  to  the  former  that 
the  study  of  rhetoric  chiefly  commends  itself,  since  it 
affords  a  way  towards  a  larger  as  well  as  a  finer  dis- 
cernment of  those  beauties  in  which  they  take  delight. 
While,  therefore,  a  knowledge  of  rhetoric  is  of  great 
importance  to  the  writer,  it  may  be  shown  to  possess 
a  still  higher  value  as  a  means  of  culture  and  educa- 
tional discipline. 

By  culture  is  meant  the  refining  and  humanizing 
influence  of  art  or  letters,  through  which  one  attains 
to  a  more  delicate  sensibility  of  taste,  and  a  higher 
and  purer  stage  of  intellectual  enjoyment.  As  a 
means  of  culture,  literature  is  at  once  more  accessible, 
more   effective,  and   more   enduring   than   art.     There 


Preface.  v 

was  a  time  when  literary  culture  was  considered  pos- 
sible only  with  those  who  studied  the  ancient  classics ; 
but  at  the  present  day  a  far  larger  field  is  recognized. 
It  may  arise  in  many  ways,  both  in  art  and  literature ; 
and  in  the  latter  it  niay  be  effected  by  the  study  of 
German  as  well  as  Greek,  Italian  as  well  as  Latin.  For 
the  great  purposes  of  culture  Dante  is  equal  to  Virgil, 
Goethe  to  Homer;  while  a  familiarity  with  Shake- 
speare is  of  itself  a  liberal  education.  Of  all  literatures 
English  \^  the  most  fully  equipped,  since  it  possesses 
works  of  the  highest  excellence  in  all  its  departments, 
many  of  which  can  never  be  surpassed,  and  some  of 
which  have  never  been  equalled. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  full  benefit  of  our  literature, 
it  should  be  studied  in  accordance  with  some  system. 
In  this  way  the  effort  after  culture  may  be  combined 
with  an  educational  discipline  not  inferior  to  any  which 
may  be  derived  from  the  ancient  classics.  There  are 
three  modes  by  which  the  study  of  literature  may  be 
pursued  :  first,  the  philological ;  secondly,  the  historical ; 
and,  thirdly,  the  rhetorical.  The  first  has  reference  to 
the  language,  its  origin  and  growth,  its  dialects  and 
idioms;  the  second  concerns  itself  with  the  rise  and 
progress  of  literature,  the  influences  by  which  it  is  af- 
fected, and  the  character  which  it  assumes  in  different 
periods ;  while  the  third  has  to  do  with  the  style  of  v^ari- 
ous  works,  their  excellences  and  defects,  together  with 
the  principles  upon  which  they  are  constructed.  These 
three  modes  may  all  be  carried  on  simultaneously;  and 
though  the  teacher  may  emphasize  one  beyond  the 
others,  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  neglect  any  one  in 
any  scheme  of  liberal  education.  As  to  the  first  and 
second,  there  is  at  the  present  day  but  little  danger 
of  such  neglect.  The  taste  of  the  age  is  eagerly  turned 
to  philology  and  history;  for  the  third  there  seems  to 
be  neither  so  lively  an  appreciation  nor  so  vigilant  a 
regard. 

The   study  of  rhetoric  may  be  regarded  as  an  an- 


VI  Preface. 

alytical  examination  of  literature.  In  this  way  the 
student  is  led  to  investigate  the  qualities  of  style,  and 
the  various  forms  of  expression  employed  by  different 
writers.  He  searches  into  the  causes  of  literary  suc- 
cess or  failure;  and  endeavors  to  find  out  why  it  is 
that  one  author  writes  with  clearness,  another  with 
persuasiveness ;  one  expresses  himself  with  energy,  an- 
other with  elegance ;  one  is  distinguished  for  vivacity, 
another  for  sonorous  rhythm.  He  also  makes  himself 
familiar  with  the  modes  by  which  the  material  for  com- 
position is  collected,  set  forth  in  proper  order,  unfolded 
in  due  course  of  discussion,  amplified,  illustrated,  and 
enforced,  till  the  purpose  of  the  writer  is  attained. 
Besides  this,  he  pays  attention  to  those  higher  quali- 
ties of  writing  which  appeal  to  the  taste  and  influence 
the  emotions.  It  will  not  fail  to  heighten  his  appre- 
ciation of  literature  thus  to  examine  it  from  within 
and  from  without,  to  mark  its  frame-work  and  observe 
its  adornment,  to  become  acquainted  with  its  beauties 
and  its  defects,  to  tell  wherein  these  consist,  to  have 
the  nomenclature  of  criticism  and  use  it  intelligently. 
Such  a  study,  if  properly  pursued,  must  surely  tend  to 
true  culture,  and  blend  with  this  a  fine  educational 
discipline,  awakening  the  more  delicate  sensibilities  of 
the  mind,  and  calling  forth  its  more  robust  faculties 
into  active  exercise. 

In  the  present  work  an  effort  has  been  made  to  con- 
sider everything  that  can  properly  be  regarded  as  be- 
longing to  the  province  of  rhetoric,  and  its  contents 
embrace  the  subjects  of  style,  method,  the  language 
of  the  emotions,  and  the  general  departments  of  litera- 
ture. Under  the  head  of  style,  the  figures  of  speech 
have  been  subjected  to  a  minute  survey ;  and  while 
the  ancient  names  have  been  retained,  a  new  classifica- 
tion has  been  adopted  so  as  to  make  their  character 
and  mutual  relation  clearly  apparent.  It  will  not  be 
forgotten  that  these  figures  of  speech  are  something 
more  than   mere   names.     They  are  forms  of  expres- 


Preface.  vii 

sion  in  actual  use,  pervading  all  literature,  and  entering 
largely  into  the  speech  of  common  life ;  so  that  while 
their  effect  upon  the  development  of  language  may- 
claim  the  attention  of  the  philologist,  their  influence 
upon  literature  will  not  be  disregarded  by  the  student 
of  style.  Attention  has  also  been  paid  to  that  aspect 
of  rhetoric  which  is  commonly  described  by  the  term 
"  belles-lettres,"  under  which  it  approximates  in  char- 
acter to  the  fine  arts,  and  presents  for  consideration 
such  topics  as  word-painting,  tone,  and  rhythm.  These 
subjects,  and  others  which  need  not  be  enumerated 
here,  form  the  leading  features  of  style,  and  disclose 
the  various  modes  by  which  the  writer  attains  to  clear- 
ness, harmony,  or  persuasiveness.  Besides  this,  there  is 
also  the  preparation  of  subject-matter,  which  is  here 
discussed  under  the  name  of  method,  and  embraces  in- 
vention, the  author's  point  of  view,  classification  of 
material,  order  of  thought,  argument,  and  the  laws  of 
reasoning.  The  language  of  the  emotions  is  also  re- 
garded as  appertaining  to  the  sphere  of  rhetoric,  and 
considered  in  connection  with  the  beautiful  and  the 
sublime,  wit  and  humor,  the  fantastic  and  the  pathetic. 
Finally  a  survey  is  made  of  the  general  departments  of 
literature :  description  and  narration,  exposition  and 
oratory,  poetry  and  the  drama,  in  which  each  of  these 
subjects  is  investigated  in  order. 

So  many  writers  have  been  consulted  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  work  that  an  acknowledgment  of  indebt- 
edness would  be  little  else  than  the  catalogue  of  a 
good -sized  library.  Wherever  special  use  has  been 
made  of  any  author,  care  has  been  taken  to  give  full 
credit,  and  if  this  has  not  been  done  in  any  case,  the 
omission  has  not  been  intentional.  Some  things  will 
be  found  here  which  are  jottings  from  memory,  or 
newspaper  clippings,  the  authorship  of  which  could 
not  be  traced ;  but  many  others  are  the  common  prop- 
erty of  writers  on  rhetoric,  and  for  the  use  of  these  no 
acknowledgments  are  due. 


viii  Preface. 

While  a  work  on  rhetoric  can  hardly  contain  any- 
thing new  in  the  subject-matter,  it  is  still  possible  to 
exhibit  some  originality  in  the  mode  of  treatment. 
Not  a  few  subjects  are  discussed  here  in  a  way  which 
differs  somewhat  from  that  adopted  by  other  writers. 
A  leading  feature  of  the  book  may  be  found  in  the 
fulness  and  profusion  of  the  examples  and  illustrations 
which  accompany  the  discussion  of  each  topic.  No 
pains  have  been  spared  to  make  these  at  once  appli- 
cable and  accurate,  for  it  has  been  felt  that  without 
these  the  best  definitions  and  explanations  are  compar- 
atively useless. 

The  author's  design  has  been  to  make  his  labors  sub- 
serve what  he  conceives  to  be  the  great  end  of  rhetor- 
ical study.  He  has  endeavored  to  make  his  method 
distinct  and  intelligible,  and  in  style  he  has  aimed  at 
nothing  more  than  clearness  and  simplicity.  How  he 
has  succeeded  it  is  for  others  to  say,  but  he  may  be 
permitted  to  indulge  the  hope  that  this  work  will  not 
be  without  some  value  both  to  the  student  and  the 
general  reader. 


CONTENTS. 


PART    I.— PERSPICUITY    IN    STYLE. 

Chafi'ER  I.    Style Page  13 

§  I.  Derivation  and  Definition  of  the  Term  Rhetoric ;  §  2.  Main 
Divisions  of  the  Subject  ofHRhetoric ;  §  3.  Definition  of  Style  ; 
§  4.  Style  differs  among  Nations  and  Individuals  ;  §  5.  Utility  of 
Rules  ;   §  6.  General  Divisions  of  Style. 

Chapter  II.    Perspicuity  in  Words. — Simplicity 17 

§  7.  Perspicuity  Defined  and  Explained ;  §  8.  Divisions  of  the  Sub- 
ject of  Perspicuity  ;  §  9.  Sources  of  Perspicuity  in  Words  ;  §  10.  Sim- 
plicity ;  §  II.  Concrete  Terms  ;  §  12.  Words  of  Anglo-Saxon  Origin ; 
§  13.  Table  showing  the  Percentage  ot  Words  of  Anglo-Saxon  Origin  ; 
§  14.  Anglo-Saxon  the  Essential  Element  in  the  Language  ;  §  15.  The 
most  Popular  Books  in  the  Language  show  a  Preponderance  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Element ;  §  16.  Many  Latin  Words  equally  Simple ; 
§  17.  Importance  of  the  Latin  Element  in  our  Language. 

Chapter  III.  Perspicuity  in  Words,  Continued. — Precision...  27 
§  i8.  Precision ;  §  19.  In  Substantive  Terms ;  §  20.  In  Attributive 
Terms;  §  21.  In  Predicative  Terms;  §  22.  Clearness  of  Cooception ; 
§  23.  Care  in  the  Use  of  Words  ;  §  24.  Synonymous  Words  ;  §  25.  Im- 
propriety ;  §  26.  Vague  Words  ;  §  27.  Verbosity  ;  §  28.  Tautology  ; 
§  29.  Circumlocution ;  §  30.  Verbosity  in  the  Pulpit  and  the  Press. 

Chapter  IV.    Perspicuity  in  Words,  Continued.— Purity 41 

§  31.  Purity;  §  32.  Obsolete  Words;  §  33.  Obsolete  Terminations 
and  Meanings  ;  §  34,  Obsolete  Words  used  in  Religious  Literature ; 
§  35.  In  Poetry  ;  §  36.  In  Fiction ;  §  37.  Archaism ;  §  38.  Obsolete 
Words  Restored  to  General  Use  ;  §  39.  New  Words  ;  §  40.  Their 
Growth;  §  41.  Sources;  §  42.  Rapidity  of  Increase;  §  43.  Proper 
Authority  Defined  ;  §  44.  Faulty  Use  of  New  Words  ;  §  45,  New  Com- 
pound Words  ;  §  46.  Faulty  Use  of  New  Compounds ;  §  47.  Conclud- 
ing Remarks  on  Purity  ;  §  48.  Grammar  and  Idiom. 
A2 


X  Contents. 

Chapter  V.    Perspicuity  in  Sentences Page  56 

§  49.  Periodic  and  Simple  Structure  ;  §  50.  Rule  for  Arrangement 
of  Words;  §  51.  Limitation  of  Rule;  §  52.  Unity;  §  53.  Prominence 
of  the  Principal  Subject ;  §  54-  Appended  Clauses  j  §  55.  Parenthesis  ; 
§  56.  Long  and  Short  Sentences. 

Chapter  VL    Perspicuity  in  General. 72 

§  57.  Clearness  of  Conception  and  Method ;  §  58.  Conciseness ; 
§  59.  Diffuseness ;  §  60.  Repetition  ;  §  61.  Digression ;  §  62.  Loose 
Style  ;  §  63.  Perspicuity  sometimes  not  aimed  at 


PART    II.— PERSUASIVENESS    IN    STYLE. 

Chapter  L    Figures  of  Speech 85 

§  64.  Persuasiveness  ;  §  65.  Definition  of;  §  66.  General  Divisions ; 
§  67.  Figures  of  Speech ;  §  68.  Their  Importance ;  §  69.  Trojjes ; 
§  70.  Various  Classifications  of  Figures ;  §  71.  Classification  adopted 
in  this  Work. 

Chapter  II.     Figures  op  Relativity  arising  from  the  Idea  of 
Contrast 93 

§  72.  Figures  of  Relativity ;  §  73.  Contrast ;  §  74.  Antithesis  De- 
fined ;  §  75.  Its  Utility ;  §  76.  Its  Effectiveness  in  V^arious  Departments 
of  Literature;  §  77.  Antithesis  Compared  with  Plain  Statement; 
§  78.  Various  Forms  of  Antithesis ;  §  79.  Antimctabole ;  §  80.  Para- 
diastole  ;  §  81.  Synocceosis,  or  Enantiosis  ;  §  82.  Oxymoron  ;  §  83.  Pa- 
rison,  Isocolon  ;  §  84.  Prosapodosis. 

Chapter  III.     Figures  of  Relativity  arising  from  the  Percep- 
tion OF  Rf^emblance. 102 

§  85.  The  Perception  of  Resemblance  ;  §  86.  Parallel  ;  §  87.  Diexo- 
dus  ;  §  8&  Tricola  ;  §  89.  Diallage  ;  §  90.  Metabole  ;  §  91.  Exergasia  ; 
§  92.  Paradiastole ;  §  93.  Comparison  ;  §  94.  Of  Degree ;  §  95.  Of 
Analogy ;  §  96.  Of  Similarity  ;  §  97.  As  an  Ornament ;  §  98.  P'or  Ex- 
planation ;  §  99.  Faults  in  the  Use  of  Comparison ;  §  100.  Metaphor ; 
§  loi.  Where  one  Living  Thing  is  put  for  Another ;  §  102.  One  Inani- 
mate Thing  for  Another ;  §  103.  Inanimate  Things  for  Things  having 
Life  ;  §  104.  Inanimate  Things  Represented  as  Endowed  with  Life ; 
§  105.  Metaphor  used  as  an  Ornament ;  §  106.  For  Explanation  ; 
§  107.  To  give  Elmphasis ;  §  108.  Faults  in  their  Use;  §  109.  Mixed 
Metaphors;  §  no.  Not  always  Objectionable;  §  iii.  Catachresis ; 
§  112.  Allegory;  §  113.  Parable;  §  114.  Fable;  §  115.  Personitication  ; 
§  116.  Apostrophe;  §  117.  Vision  ;  §  118.  Allusion;  §  119.  Historical 
Allusion;  §  120.  Literary  Allusion;  §  121.  Quotation  ;  §  122.  Plagiar- 
ism ;  §  123.  Other  Figures;  §  124.  Irony;  §  125.  Sarcasm;  §  126.  In- 
nuendo. 


\  Contents.  xi 

Chapter  IV.     Figures  of  Relativit\'  arising  from  the  Idea  of 
Contiguity Page  134 

§.127.  Figures  of  Contiguity;  §  128.  Synecdoche;  §  129.  Antimeria, 
Enallage  ;  §  130.  Metonymy;  §  131.  Metalepsis ;  §  132.  Periphrasis; 
§  133.  Euphemism  ;  §  134-  Hypocorisma  ;  §  135.  Litotes  ;  §  136.  Ex- 
emplum  ;  §  137.  Epithets;  §  138.  Importance  of;  §  139.  Their  Popu- 
larity ;  §  140.  In  Poetry ;  §  141.  In  Prose ;  §  142.  Faulty  Use. 

Chapter  V.    Figures  of  Gradation — Augmentative 152 

§  143.  Figures  of  Gradation ;  §  144.  Augmentative  Figures ;  §  145. 
Amplification  ;  §  146.  By  Dwelling  upon  Details  ;  §  147.  By  Direct 
Statement ;  §  148.  B^  Comparison  ;  §  149.  Accumulation  ;  §  15a  Col- 
lectio,  Aggregatio ;  §  151,  Synathroismus ;  §  152.  Diasceue ;  §  153. 
Synezeugmenon  ^  §  154.  Epexergasia  ;  §  155.  Dinumeratio  ;  §  156.  De- 
scription ;  §  157.  Ecloge ;  §  158.  Hypotyposis ;  §  159.  Metastasis; 
§  160.  Climax  ;  §  161.  Incrementum ;  §  162.  Progressio;  §  163.  Hyper- 
bole; §  164.  Transgressio. 

Chapter  VI.    Figures  of  Gradation — Decrementim  .   168 

§  165.  Decrementive  Figures;  §  166.  Diminution;  §  167.  Deprecia- 
tion ;  §  168.  Anticlimax. 

Chapter  VII.    Figures  of  Emphasis.— Direct  Stress  and  Itera- 
tion    172 

§  169.  Figures  of  Emphasis;  §  170.  By  Direct  Stress.— Assertion ; 
§  171.  Negation  ;  §  172.  Emphasis  by  Repetition  ;  §  173.  The  Iterative 
Figures;  §  174.  Epizeuxis  ;  §  175,  Kepctitio  Crebra ;  §  176.  An.ipho- 
ra ;  §  177.  Epistrophe  ;  §  178.  Antistrophe  ;  §  179.  Epanaphora  ; 
§  180.  Anadiplosis  ;  §  181.  Epanodos  ;  §  182.  Epanalepsis  ;  §  183. 
Ploce  ;  §  184.  Symploce  ;  §  185.  Synonymia ;  §  186.  Alliteration; 
§  187.  Homoeoteleuton. 

Chapter  VIII.    Figures  of  Emphasis  arising  from  the  Inversion 
of  Words 182 

§  188.  Inversion;  §  189.  In  Poetry;  §  190.  In  Prose;  §  191.  Anas- 
trophe  ;  §  192.  Synchesis  ;  §  193.  Tmesis  ;  §  194.  Hyperbaton  ;  §  195. 
Hysteron  Proteron. 

Chapter  IX.    Figures  of  Emphasis  arising  from  an  Unusual  or 

Striking  Presentation 189 

§  196.  Unusual  Modes  of  Statement ;  §  197.  Exclamation ;  §  198. 
Salutation ;  §  199.  Epiphonema ;  §  200.  Interrogation  ;  §  201.  Sermo- 
cinatio  ;  §  202.  Percontatio  and  Expositio  ;  §  203.  Responsio  Sibi  Ipsi ; 
§  204,  Parenthetical  Figures;  §  205.  Commentum  ;  §  206.  Appositio 
and  Explanatio ;  §  207.  Elliptical  Figures ;  §  208.  Ellipse  ;  §  209. 
Zeugma;  §  210.  Synesis  ;  §  211.  Anacoluthon  ;  §  212.  Aposiopesis; 
§  213.  Epanorthosis  ;  §  214.  Interruptio ;  §  215.  Suppressio;  §  216. 
Asyndeton  ;  §  217.  Pleonastic  Figures;  §  218.  Pleonasm;  §  2i9.'Ana. 


xii  Contents. 

lepsis  ;  §  220.  Polysyndeton  ;  §  221.  Asyndeton  and  Polysyndeton  Con- 
trasted ;  §  222.  ParcEmiac  Figures;  §  223.  Proverb;  §  224.  Apoph- 
thegm ;  §  225.  Epigram. 

Chapter  X.    Energy Page  204 

§  226.  Definition ;  §  227.  Simplicity  as  Tending  to  Energy ;  §  228. 
Conciseness  ;  §  229.  Retrenchment  of  Superfluous  Words  ;  §  230.  Pre- 
cision ;  §  231.  The  Definite  ;  §  232.  The  Concrete  ;  §  233.  Demonstra- 
tive Terms ;  §  234-  Proper  Terms ;  §  235.  Other  Qualities  that  Tend 
to  Energy ;  §  236.  Ulustrations ;  §  237.  Faults  of  Style  as  Opposed  to 
Energy. 

Chapter  XI.    Vivacity 218 

§  238,  Definition  ;  §  239.  Vivacity  in  Thought ;  §  240.  In  Expression  ; 
§  241.  Copiousness  ;  §  242.  Versatility;  §  243.  Brilliancy;  §  244,  Vivid- 
ness ;  §  245.  Felicity  of  Style ;  §  246.  Faults  of  Style  as  Opposed  to 
Vivacity. 

Chapter  XII.    The  Illustratfv^e  Style. 226 

§  247.  The  Illustrative  Style ;  §  248.  Example ;  §  249.  Allusion ; 
§  250.  Comparison  and  Metaphor ;  §  251.  Anecdote. 

Chapter  XIII.    The  Epigrammatic  St^'le 230 

§  252.  Epigrammatic  Style ;  §  253.  In  Poetry ;  §  254,  In  Prose ; 
§  255.  Faults  in  the  Epigrammatic  Style. 

Chapter  XIV.     Other  Qualities  of  Style  associated  with  Vi- 
vacity   234 

§  256.  Classical  Style  ;  §  257.  Suggestive  Style ;  §  258.  Other  Terms 
applied  to  Style 


PART   III.— HARMONY   IN    STYLE. 

Chapter  I.    Euphony. 239 

§  259.  Harmony  in  Style  ;  §  260.  Euphony  ;  §  261.  In  Different  Kinds 
of  Composition  ;  §  262.  Examples  ;  §  263.  Violations  of  Euphony  in 
Various  Letters  and  Syllables  ;  §  264.  By  Repetition  of  Words  ;  §  265. 
Repetition  of  Words  sometimes  Necessary. 

Chapter  II.    Elegance. 247 

§  266.  Elegance  ;  §  267.  Violations  of  Elegance  ;  §  268.  Affectations  ; 
§  269.  Mannerism  ;  §  270.  Colloquialisms;  §  271.  Slang;  §  272.  Cant ; 
§  273.  Vulgarisms. 

Chapter  III.    The  Harmonious  Arrangement  of  Words 254 

§  274.  Harmonious  Arrangement  of  Words  requires  Euphony  and 
Elegance ;  §  275.  Harmonious  Succession  of  Words ;  §  276.  Modi- 
fying Words ;    §  277.  Impersonal  Constructions ;    §  278.  Appended 


Contents.  xiii 

Clauses ;  §  279.  Explanatory  Words  ;  §  280.  Prepositions  ;  §  281.  Va- 
riation of  Connectives ;  §  282.  Variety  in  Clauses ;  §  283.  Co-ordina- 
tion of  Clauses  ;  §  284.  The  Close  of  the  Sentence. 

Chapter  IV.    Transitions Page  261 

§  285.  Harmony  in  General ;  §  286.  The  Introduction  ;  §  287.  Transi- 
tions ;  §  288.  The  Formal  Transition  ;  §  289.  The  Elegant  Transition  ; 
§  290.  Paragraphs  ;  §  291.  Conclusion. 

Chapter  V.    Word-Painting  and  Onomatopceia 265 

§  292.  Word-Painting ;  §  293.  The  Music  of  Words  ;  §  294.  Onoma- 
topoeia ;  §  295.  In  Poetry ;  §  296.  In  Prose ;  §  297.  The  Latin  Element 
in  the  English  Language  Invaluable  for  Purposes  of  Harmony. 

Chapter  VI.    Rhythm 276 

§  298.  Rhythm  in  Poetry ;  §  299.  Rhythm  in  Prose. 

Chapter  VII.    Qualities  of  Style  associated  with  Harmony..  282 

§  300.  Qualities  of  Style  Conducive  to  Harmony  ;  §  301.  Figures  of 

Speech  ;  §  302.  Ease  of  Style  ;  §  303.  Ornament ;  §  304.  Violations  of 

Elegance  ;  §  305.  Carelessness  ;  §  306.  The  Florid  Style  ;  §  307.  The 

Pretentious  Style  ;  §  308.  Ostentation  ;  §  309.  Vulgarity. 


PART   IV.— METHOD. 

Chapter  I.    Subject-Matter 294 

§  310.  Method  Defined  ;  §  311.  Subject-Matter. 

Chapter  IL    The  Purpose  of  the  Writer 296 

§  312.  The  Purpose  of  the  Writer;  §  313.  The  Aim  to  Instruct; 
§  314.  The  Aim  to  Convince;  §  315.  The  Aim  to  Persuade;  §  316. 
The  Aim  to  Please ;  §  317.  The  Union  of  Different  Aims. 

Chapter  III.    Modes  of  Invention 304 

§  318.  Two  Kinds  of  Invention;  §  319.  Accumulative  Invention; 
§  320.  Creative  Invention;  §  321.  The  Real  and  the  Ideal;  §  322. 
Poetic  Fiction ;  §  323.  Prose  Fiction ;  §  324.  The  Two  Kinds  of  In- 
vention Intermingled ;  §  325.  Of  the  Two  Kinds,  the  Creative  is  the 
Greater. 

Chapter  IV.    The  Status 309 

§  326.  Arrangement  of  Subject-Matter  ;  §  327.  Status  ;  §  328.  Where 
the  Aim  is  to  Instruct ;  §  329.  Where  the  Aim  is  to  Convince  or  Per- 
suade ;  §  330.  Leading  Stages  of  Oratory ;  §  331.  The  Status  where  the 
Aim  is  to  Please ;  §  332.  The  Title. 

Chapter  V.    Classification •  315 

§  333- Classification ;  §  334.  In  Narrative;  §  335.  In  Description; 


xiv  Contents. 

§  336.  Grouping ;  §  337.  In  Exposition  ;  §  338.  Analysis  and  Synthesis ; 
§  339-  General  and  Particular  Propositions. 

Chapter  VI.    The  Order  of  Thought Page  325 

§  340.  Order  of  Thought ;  §  341.  Chronological ;  §  342.  Logical ; 
§  343.  In  Narration  ;  §  344.  Concurrent  Streams  ;  §  345.  Retrogression ; 
§  346.  Explanatory  Narrative  ;  §  347,  Summary ;  §  348.  In  Exposition ; 
§  349.  Proof;  §  350.  Refutation;  §  351.  Examples;  §  352.  Dramatic 
Order  of  Thought ;  §  353.  Scenic  Order  of  Thought ;  §  354.  Order  of 
Thought  in  Dramatic  and  Narrative  Writing ;  §  355.  General  Rule. 

Chapter  VII.     Arguments 347 

§  356.  Arguments ;  §  357.  Difference  between  Rhetoric  and  Logic ; 
§  358.  Logic  Defined  ;  §  359.  Reasoning ;  §  360.  Terms  ;  §  361.  Propo- 
sitions ;  §  362.  Definitions  ;  §  363.  Proof;  §  364.  Deduction  ;  §  365.  In- 
duction ;  §  366.  Mill's  Four  Experimental  Methods  of  Inquiry;  §  367. 
Enthymeme  ;  §  368.  Kinds  of  Arguments;  §  369.  Causative;  §  370. 
Illustrative  ;  §  371.  Exemplative  ;  §  372.  Experience  ;  §  373.  Analogy  ; 
§  374.  Contrast;  §  375.  Application  of  the  Different  Classes  of  Argu- 
ments. 

Chapter  VIII.    The  Presentation  of  Arguments 358 

§  376.  Presentation  of  Arguments  ;  §  377.  Clearness  of  Statement  and 
Strengthening  of  Argument ;  §  378.  Transition  ;  §  379.  Amplification  ; 
§  380.  Diminution  ;  §  381.  Condensation  ;  §  382.  Comprehensiveness  ; 
§  383.  Generalization  ;  §  384.  The  Definite ;  §  385.  Description  in 
Oratory ;  §  386.  Emphasis  of  Propositions ;  §  387.  Assertion  ;  §  388. 
Denial ;  §  389.  Apophthegm  ;  §  390.  Digression  ;  §  391.  Repetition  of 
Propositions  ;  §  392.  Recapitulation. 

Chapter  JX.    The  Introduction 368 

§  393.  Introduction ;  §  394-  In  Narrative ;  §  395.  In  the  Drama ; 
§  396.  In  Oratory ;  §  397.  The  Introduction  with  Reference  to  its  own 
Character ;  §  398.  General  Nature  of  the  Introduction ;  §  399.  The 
Preface. 

Chapter  X.    The  Conclusion 373 

§  400.  The  Conclusion  ;  §  401.  In  Narrative  Fiction  ;  §  402.  In  His- 
tory ;  §  403.  In  Biography ;  §  404.  In  the  Drama ;  §  405.  In  Oratory ; 
§  406.  Different  Kinds  of  Conclusion. 


PART   v.— THE    EMOTIONS. 

Chaffer  L    The  Beautiful 380 

§  407.  Influence  of  the  Emotions  in  Literature ;  §  408.  Classifica- 
tion of  the  Emotions ;  §  409.  Literary  ^Esthetics ;  §  410.  Theories 
of  the  Beautiful;  §  411.  Definition  of  the  Beautiful;  §  412.  Taste; 
§  413.  The  Beautiful  in  Nature;  §  414.  Color;  §  415.  Form  or  Fig- 


Contents,  xv 

ure  ;  §  416.  Motion  ;  §  417.  Sound  ;  §  418.  Proportion  ;  §  419.  Variety  ; 
§  420.  Design  ;  §  421.  The  Beautiful  in  Morals  ;  §  422.  The  Beautiful  in 
Literature ;  §  423.  Difference  between  the  Ancient  and  Modern  Idea 
of  the  Beautiful. 

Chapter  II.    The  Sublime Page  395 

§  424.  The  Sublime ;  §  425.  The  Sublime  in  Nature — the  Vast  and 
Boundless  ;  §  426.  Awe  ;  §  427.  The  Moral  Sublime  ;  §  428.  The  Sub- 
lime in  Literature  ;  §  429.  Sources  of  the  Sublime  ;  §  430.  Illustrations  ; 
§  431.  Difference  between  the  Sublime  and  the  Beautiful. 

Chapter  IIL    The  Ridiculous 404 

§  432.  The  Ridiculous ;  §  433.  Wit ;  §  434.  Humor ;  §  435.  Wit  and 
Humor  in  English  Literature ;  §  436.  The  Ridiculous  in  Literature ; 
§  437.  Without  a  Purpose ;  §  438.  With  a  Purpose  ;  §  439.  Epigram  ; 
§  440.  Squib;  §  441.  Pasquinade  ;  §  442.  Lampoon  ;  §  443.  Bon-Mot ; 
§  444.  Parody ;  §  445.  Satirical  Poetry  in  General ;  §  446.  Satirical 
Writings  in  Prose  ;  §  447.  Special  Forms  of  the  Ridiculous  ;  §  448. 
Banter;  §  449.  Chaff;  §  45a  Paronomasia;  §  451,  The  Pun;  §  452. 
Retort ;  §  453.  Repartee  ;  §  454.  Double- Entendre  ;  §  455.  Buffoonery  ; 
§  456.  Irony  ;  §  457.  Innuendo;  §  458.  Sarcasm  ;  §  459.  Sneer;  §  460. 
The  Power  of  the  Ridiculous ;  §  461.  Legitimate  Use  of  the  Ridicu- 
lous ;  §  462.  Abuse  of  the  Ridiculous. 

Chapter  IV.    The  Fantastic 428 

§  463.  The  Fantastic 

Chapter  V.    The  Desires 430 

§  464.  The  Desires;  §  465.  Self- Preservation  ;  §  466.  Sel  f- Esteem ; 
§  467.  Ambition  ;  §  468.  Avarice  ;  §  469.  The  Desire  for  Knowledge. 

Chapter  VI.    The  Affections 435 

§  470.  The  Affections. 

Chapter  VII.    The  Passions 437 

§  471.  The  Passions  ;  §  472.  Love ;  §  473.  Aversion;  §  474.  Passions 
associated  with  Happiness ;  §  475.  Passions  associated  with  Sorrow. 

Chapter  VlIL    Literature  of  the  Desires,  Affections,  and  Pas- 
sions  442 

§  476.  Literature  of  the  Affections  and  Passions  ;  §  477.  Expressing 
Happiness ;  §  478.  Sorrow ;  §  479.  The  Pathetic  in  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures ;  §  480.  In  Classical  Literature ;  §  481.  In  Mediaeval  Literature ; 
§  482.  In  Modern  Literature ;  §  483.  The  Pathetic  an  Animating  Ele- 
ment in  Literature. 

Chapter  IX.     Forms  of  Expression   associated  with  the  Emo- 
tions AND  Passions 448 

§  484.  Forms  of  Expression  relating  to  the  Emotions  ;  §  485.  Where 


xvi  Contents. 

Superiority  is  Implied ;   §  486.  Inferiority ;   §  487.  Equality ;   §  488. 
Personal  Reference. 


PART  VI.— THE  GENERAL   DEPARTMENTS   OF 
LITERATURE. 

Chapter  I.    Description Page  456 

§  489.  Literature  Defined  and  Classified  ;  §  490.  Objective  Descrip- 
tion ;  §  491.  Subjective  Description  ;  §  492.  The  Two  Kinds  United, 

Chapter  II.    Narration 461 

§  493.  Narration  ;  §  494.  Objective  ;  §  495.  Subjective. 

Chapter  III.    Exposition 466 

§  496.  Exposition ;  §  497.  Outline  of  Human  Knowledge ;  §  498. 
Classification  of  Expository  Writings. 

Chapter  IV.    Oratory 469 

§  499.  Oratory ;  §  500.  Debate  ;  §  501.  Controversial ;  §  502.  Parlia- 
mentary. 

Chapter  V.    The  Tactics  of  Oratory 474 

§  503.  Tactics  of  Oratory  ;  §  504.  Conciliation  ;  §  505.  Self-Deprecia- 
tion ;  §  506.  Compliment ;  §  507.  Thanks  ;  §  508.  Concession  ;  §  509. 
Confession;  §  510.  Permission  ;  §  511.  Consultation  with  the  Aadience  ; 
§  512.  Emphasis  ;  §  513.  Statement  of  the  Necessity  of  a  Case  ;  §  514. 
Statement  of  a  Future  Occurrence;  §  515.  Dwelling  upon  a  Proposi- 
tion; §  516.  Rapid  Mention;  §  517.  Holding  the  Audience  in  Sus- 
pense; §  518.  Preparation  for  What  is  to  Follow;  §  519.  Unexpected 
Statement;  §  520.  Reference  to  Past  Events;  §  521.  Possibility  Con- 
trasted with  Reality ;  §  522.  Explanation  ;  §  523.  Statement  of  the 
Reason  for  a  Thing ;  §  524.  Answers  to  Objections ;  §  525.  Anticipa- 
tion of  Objections. 

Chapter  VI.    The  Artifices  of  Oratory 485 

§  526.  Artifices  of  Oratory ;  §  527.  Expression  of  Doubt  or  Igno- 
rance; §  528.  Intentional  Omission  of  Words  ;  §  529.  Withdrawal  of  an 
Expression;  §  530.  Apparent  Intent;  §  531.  Supposed  Case;  §  532. 
Other  Forms  of  Artifice. 

Chapter  VII.    Attack  and  Defence 491 

§  533.  Attack  and  Defence  ;  §  534.  Attack  ;  §  535.  Personal  Attack  ; 
§  536.  Incidental  Reference;  §  537.  Side-Thrust;  §  538.  Defence; 
§  539-  Strict  Defence ;  §  540.  Indirect  Reply ;  §  541.  Defence  turned 
into  Attack ;  §  542.  Testimony  of  an  Adversary. 


Contents.  xvii 

Chapter  VIII.    Display  of  Feeling  in  Oratory Page  498 

§  543.  Display  of  Feeling;  §  544.  Sudden  Outburst  of  Feeling;  §  545. 
Extravagance  of  Expression ;  §  546.  Control  of  Emotion ;  §  547. 
Eulogy ;  §  548.  Panegyric  ;  §  549.  Retort ;  §  550.  Sarcasm. 

Chapter  IX.     Qualifications  for  an  Orator 504 

§  551.  Qualifications  for  an  Orator  ;  §  552.  Command  of  the  Subject ; 
§  553-  Fertility  in  Resources ;  §  554.  Conciliatory  Demeanor  ;  §  555. 
Knowledge  of  the  Persons  Addressed  ;  §  556.  Adaptation  to  the  Intelli- 
gence of  the  Audience  ;  §  557.  Judicious  Selection  of  the  Occasion  for 
Speaking;  §  558.  The  Orator  should  not  Aim  after  too  much  ;  §  559. 
Physical  Advantages;  §  560.  Moral  Qualities;  §  561.  Intellectual 
Qualities. 

Chapter  X.    Dialogue 513 

§  562.  Dialogue  ;  §  563.  Didactic ;  §  564.  Dramatic. 

Chapter  XI.    The  Drama 515 

§  565.  The  Drama ;  §  566.  Divisions  of  Dramatic  Literature  ;  §  567. 
Origin  of  the  Drama;  §  568.  Mystery  and  Morality  I'liv-^  :  t.  !:;69.  I'he 
Greek  Drama ;  §  570.  The  Modern  Drama. 

Chaffer  XII.    Poetry 518 

§  571.  Poetry  ;  §  572.  Poetry  differs  from  Prose  as  to  the  Sentiment ; 
§  573.  As  to  the  Form  ;  §  574.  It  Exhibits  the  Highest  Power  of  Lan- 
guage ;  §  575.  It  Affords  the  Strongest  Expression  for  Emotion  ;  §  576. 
Poetry  Defined ;  §  577.  Parallelism  ;  §  578.  Quantity ;  §  579.  Allitera- 
tion ;  §  580.  Sequences ;  §  581.  Greek  Ecclesiastical  Metres ;  §  582. 
Accentuated  Metres  ;  §  583.  English  Versification  ;  §  584.  Iambic  Me- 
tres ;  §  585.  Trochaic  Metres ;  §  586.  Anapaestic  Metres ;  §  587.  Dac- 
tylic Metres ;  §  588.  Nomenclature  of  Metres  ;  §  589.  Interchange  of 
Feet ;  §  590.  Long  Catalectic  Syllable  ;  §  591.  Interchange  of  Metres ; 
§  592.  Other  Feet ;  §  593.  Caesural  Pause ;  §  594,  Rhyme  ;  §  595.  Blank 
Verse ;  §  596.  Nomenclature  of  Verses ;  §  597.  Species  of  Poetry ; 
§  598.  Narrative  Poetry  ;  §  599.  Lyric  Poetry  ;  §  600.  Dramatic  Poetry  ; 
§  601.  Descriptive  Poetry  ;  §  602.  Didactic  Poetry ;  §  603.  Pastoral 
Poetry;  §  604.  Satirical  Poetry;  §  605.  Humorous  Poetry;  §  606. 
Poems  which  Share  the  Characteristics  of  Several  Classes;  §  607. 
New  Developments  in  Versification. 


^uhiieiiitt: 
elements  of  rhetoric 


PART  I. 

PERSPICUITY   IN   STYLE. 


CHAPTER   I. 

STYLE. 


§   I.   DERIVATION    AND    DEFINITION    OF   THE   TERM    RHETORIC. 

The  term  rhetoric  is  of  Greek  origin,  and  was  first  used  to 
signify  that  which  belongs  to  the  pi}ru>p  {rhetor^  i.  e.,  orator),  a 
word  which  is  derived  from  ptw,  to  speak.  The  ancient 
rhetoricians  discussed  chiefly  the  art  of  oratory,  leaving  to 
the  grammarians  the  investigation  of  the  beauties  of  style  in 
general  prose  composition.  In  all  their  definitions  of  rhetoric 
they  make  it  the  art  of  persuasion.  Isocrates  calls  it  "  the 
worker  of  persuasion."  Plato  makes  Gorgias  define  it  as  "  the 
power  of  persuasion  by  speaking."  Aristotle  defines  it  as  "a 
faculty  of  considering  all  the  possible  means  of  persuasion  on 
every  subject."  Quintilian,  after  enumerating  many  definitions 
similar  to  these,  finally  gives  his  own,  and  calls  it  "  the  art  of 
speaking  well." 

At  the  present  day  the  meaning  of  the  word  is  less  restricted ; 
and  popular  usage  involves  two  separate  and  distinct  ideas. 
The  one  refers  to  arguments,  and  appeals  to  the  emotions,  by 
which  the  speaker  or  writer  seeks  to  convey  his  own  sentiments 


14  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

to  others.  The  abuse  of  this  sort  of  rhetoric  is  ascribed  by 
Milton  to  Belial : 

"  His  tongue 

Dropp'd  manna,  and  could  make  the  worse  appear 

The  better  reason,  to  perplex  and  dash 

Maturest  counsels." 

On  the  other  hand,  writing  is  said  to  be  rhetorical  when  it  ex- 
hibits more  than  usual  ornament.  The  abuse  of  this  is  popu- 
larly stigmatized  as  "  rhetorical  artifice,"  ''  mere  rhetoric,"  and 
the  like  ;  thus  conveying  the  idea  that  rhetoric  is  only  an  ag- 
gregation of  plausible  words  or  euphonious  sounds,  without  any 
adequate  sense.  The  popular  idea,  though  often  exaggerated, 
nevertheless  contains  the  truth,  and  it  is  from  this  that  the 
materials  for  a  proper  definition  of  rhetoric  may  best  be  gath- 
ered. 

From  this  we  see  that  the  term  rhetoric  has  now  a  twofold 
meaning,  referring  both  to  the  subject-matter  and  to  the  mode 
of  Its  presentation. 

In  the  first  case  it  relates  to  the  subject-matter,  its  choice 
and  arrangement,  where  the  writer's  aim  is  to  instruct,  convince, 
or  persuade.     Here  it  may  be  defined  as  the  art  of  persuasion. 

In  the  second  case  it  relates  to  the  manner  of  expression, 
where  the  writer  treats  his  subject  with  conscious  ornament, 
not  so  much  in  order  to  win  assent ^s  to  stimulate  the  atten- 
tion and  gratify  the  taste.  Here  it  may  be  defined  as  the  art 
of  ornamental  composition. 

§   2.  THE    MAIN    DIVISIONS    OF   THE   SUBJECT   OF    RHETORIC. 

Rhetoric  comprehends  the  following  subjects,  which  will  be 
adopted  as  the  main  divisions  of  the  present  work : 

/  I.  Style^  or  the  choice  and  arrangement  of  words. 

^'  II.  Method^  or  the  choice  and  arrangement  of  subject-matter. 

III.  The  Literature  of  the  Emotions. 

IV.  The  General  Departments  of  Literature. 

§  3.    DEFINITION    OF    STYLE. 

Style  refers  to  the  choice  and  arrangement  of  words,  and 
may  be  defined  as  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  thought  is 
expressed  in  language. 


Style,  1 5 

§  4.    STYLE   DIFFERS   AMONG   NATIONS   AND    INDIVIDUALS. 

When  we  consider  the  subject  of  style  in  general,  we  notice 
that  there  are  great  differences  in  this  respect,  as  well  among 
nations  as  among  individuals.  "  If  we  contemplate,"  says 
Quintilian,  "the  varieties  of  oratory,  we  find  almost  as  much 
diversity  in  the  minds  as  in  the  bodies  of  orators.  The  dis- 
tinction between  Attic  and  Asiatic  orators  is  of  great  antiquity ; 
the  Attics  being  regarded  as  compressed  and  energetic  in  their 
style,  the  Asiatics  as  inflated  and  deficient  in  force.  Those  who 
made  distinctions  in  these  matters  soon  after  added  a  third 
kind — the  Rhodian,  which  they  define  to  be  of  a  middle  char- 
acter between  the  other  two."  Such  differences  as  these  may 
always  be  found.  In  Oriental  literature  great  license  is  allowed 
to  the  imagination  ;  in  European  it  is  held  under  stricter  con- 
trol. In  Europe  itself  there  are  strongly  marked  varieties  of 
national  taste.  The  Italian  enjoys  a  certain  warmth  of  expres- 
sion which  to  the  Englishman  is  displeasing.  The  German,  the 
Frenchman,  and  the  Spaniard,  each  exhibits  in  his  writings  his 
peculiar  characteristics.  In  every  nation  also  there  is  a  distinc- 
tive style  at  different  periods.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  well- 
known  division  of  Latin  literature  into  the  ages  of  gold,  silver, 
and  iron ;  while  in  English  the  same  thing  is  exemplified  in  the 
prose  of  such  writers  as  Hooker,  Addison,  Johnson,  and  Macau- 
lay,  each  of  whom  represents  a  different  age.  Besides  this,  we 
have  to  consider  the  personal  peculiarities  of  the  individual 
author,  which  are  so  strikingly  manifested  that  a  man's  writings 
have  come  to  be  considered  as  much  a  mark  of  himself  as  his 
face  or  figure.  Thus  Bacon  exhibits  in  his  essays  the  force  of 
concise  and  well-balanced  antithesis;  Addison,  negligent  grace; 
Goldsmith,  ease  and  elegance  ;  Sterne,  sprightliness  and  wit. 
The  style  of  Johnson  and  of  Gibbon  is  elaborate  and  Latin- 
ized; that  of  Bunyan  and  Defoe  is  marked  by  Saxon  simplicity; 
Carlyle  displays  vehemence  and  energy ;  De  Quincey,  richness 
and  splendor ;  Emerson,  epigrammatic  point  and  sparkle. 

There  is  a  different  style  for  different  classes  of  literature. 
"That  is  good  rhetoric  for  the  hustings,"  says  De  Quincey, 
"  which  is  bad  for  a  book.  Every  mode  of  intellectual  com- 
munication has  its  separate  strength  and  separate  weakness; 
its  peculiar  embarrassment  compensated  by  peculiar  resources. 


1 6  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

It  is  the  advantage  of  a  book  that  you  can  return  to  the  past 
page  if  anything  in  the  present  depends  upon  it.  But  return 
being  impossible  in  the  case  of  a  spoken  harangue,  where  each 
sentence  perishes  as  soon  as  it  is  born,  both  the  speaker  and 
the  hearer  become  aware  of  a  mutual  interest  in  a  much  looser 
style,  and  a  perpetual  dispensation  from  the  severities  of  ab- 
stract discussion.  It  is  for  the  benefit  of  both  that  the  weight- 
ier propositions  should  be  detained  before  the  eye  a  good  deal 
longer  than  the  chastity  of  taste  or  the  austerity  of  logic  would 
tolerate  in  a  book." 

In  private  life  also,  in  conversation  and  in  letter-writing,  the 
character  is  revealed  in  the  style.  One  is  harsh  and  abrupt, 
another  easy  and  fluent,  a  third  rapid  and  impetuous,  a  fourth 
genial  and  attractive,  a  fifth  tedious  and  garrulous.  Thus  in- 
dividuals as  well  as  nations  impress  their  personal  peculiarities 
upon  their  writings;  the  form  of  expression  always  varies  with 
the  writer,  and  this  has  given  rise  to  the  saying  that  style  is  the 
man  himself. 

Style,  then,  belongs  to  the  man  himself;  it  partakes  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  individual ;  and  the  question  of  the  im- 
provement of  this  quality  becomes  the  same  as  the  question 
of  the  improvement  of  any  other  quality.  All  our  powers, 
whether  physical  or  intellectual,  are  susceptible  of  change  for 
the  better.  Gymnastic  exercise  develops  the  muscles  ;  mu- 
sical practice  gives  to  the  fingers  the  most  rapid  accuracy  of 
execution  ;  the  faculties  of  the  mind  may  be  cultivated  to  an 
unusual  degree  of  excellence;  even  the  moral  qualities  may  be 
strengthened  by  discipline.  As  by  association  with  polite  so- 
ciety the  tone  and  manners  become  refined,  so  by  familiarity 
with  the  best  authors  and  by  imitation  of  their  beauties  may 
the  style  of  a  writer  be  elevated. 

§  5.    THE    UTILITY   OF    RULES. 

Rhetorical  rules  are  useful  but  to  a  limited  extent.  They 
themselves  have  been  formed  originally  not  by  any  creative 
power  or  process  of  argument,  but  rather  from  the  observa- 
tion of  the  best  examples  and  the  study  of  the  best  authors. 
Great  writers  arise  and  are  succeeded  by  others ;  they  are  after- 
wards followed  by  the  rhetorician,  the  grammarian,  and  the 
critic,  by  whom  the  secret  of  their  composition  is  investigated; 


p:nVEP.3ITY 

Perspicuity  in    Words^^SSkkplicif^r        ,  k  I 

their  excellences,  their  faults,  and  their  fanww=ftBrfKrtS^and 
these  are  studied  and  compared,  until  at  length  it  is  decided 
what  is  to  be  imitated  and  what  is  to  be  avoided. 

"  Rules,"  says  Quintilian,  "  are  only  useful,  which  not  only 
interpret  the  law  of  rhetoric,  but  also  serve  to  strengthen  the 
faculty  of  speech.  ...  In  general,  bare  treatises  on  art,  through 
too  much  affectation  of  subtlety,  break  and  cut  down  whatever 
is  noble  in  eloquence  ;  drink  up  all  the  blood  of  thought,  and 
lay  bare  the  bones,  which,  while  they  ought  to  exist,  and  to  be 
united  by  their  ligaments,  ought  still  to  be  covered  with  flesh." 

When  rules  are  followed  too  exclusively,  the  young  writer  is 
apt  to  become  a  mere  slave  to  them,  and  but  rarely  attains  to 
any  kind  of  excellence.  Their  real  use  is  to  show  in  a  gen- 
eral way  the  excellences  that  are  to  be  followed,  and  the  faults 
that  are  to  be  avoided.  After  learning  these  the  student  is 
left  to  himself,  and,  while  he  has  the  benefit  of  all  that  he  has 
learned,  he  must  put  forth  his  own  strength,  and  rely  chiefly 
upon  this.  He  must  seek  to  give  full  play  to  his  own  powers, 
and  to  exhibit  that  style  which  is  most  in  accordance  with  his 
own  character. 

§  6.    THE    GENERAL    DIVISIONS   OF   STYLE. 

The  subject  of  style  may  be  divided  into  three  general  heads, 
under  which  may  be  classified  all  possible  excellences  or  faults 
of  expression.  These  are  :  I.  Perspicuity;  II.  Persuasiveness; 
III.  Harmony. 


CHAPTER  II. 

PERSPICUITY   IN   WORDS.— SIMPLICITY. 
§  7.    PERSPICUITY    DEFINED   AND    EXPLAINED. 

Perspicuity  means  clearness  of  expression,  and  may  be  de- 
fined as  such  a  use  of  words  that  they  may  be  understood 
without  difficulty  by  those  to  whom  they  are  addressed.  It 
may  be  regarded  as  the  first  essential  of  style,  without  which 
all  other  beauties  are  of  no  avail.  Indeed,  it  may  be  shown 
that  in  most  cases  the  so-called  beauties  of  style  would  be  un- 


i8  Elejuents  of  Rhetoric. 

attainable  unless  in  the  first  place  the  language  be  clear  and 
intelligible.  In  order  to  be  perspicuous,  however,  it  is  not 
necessar)'  that  the  style  be  understood  by  all,  but  that  it  be  un- 
derstood by  those  to  whom  it  is  addressed.  To  make  style  in- 
telligible to  all  would  be  impossible.  By  the  ignorant  and  un- 
educated many  of  the  most  beautiful  thoughts  and  graceful 
sentiments  of  aiwriter  like  Addison  would  not  be  appreciated. 
In  writings  connected  with  science,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
reader  know  something  of  the  elements  at  least  of  that  science 
before  he  can  understand  what  is  written.  Hugh  Miller  was 
commended  by  Sir  Roderick  Murchison  for  his  admirable  clear- 
ness, and  justly  too,  yet  to  one  who  knows  nothing  about  geol- 
ogy his  "Testimony  of  the  Rocks  "  would  be  obscure.  In  re- 
ligious works  an  acquaintance  is  presupposed  not  only  with  the 
Bible,  but  also  with  a  large  number  of  theological  terms,  with- 
out which  the  plainest  and  clearest  expressions  will  often  be 
simply  unintelligible. 

§  8.    DIVISIONS   OF  THE   SUBJECT   OF    PERSPICUITY. 

Perspicuity  may  be  considered,  first,  with  reference  to  the 
choice  of  words  ;  secondly,  in  their  arrangement ;  and,  thirdly, 
in  general  composition. 

§  9.    SOURCES   OF    PERSPICUITY    IN   WORDS. 

Some  words  are  clear  because  they  are  simple  ;  others  be- 
cause they  are  precise  ;  and  others  because  they  are  pure 
English.  In  each  case  we  have  a  distinct  source  of  perspicu- 
ity, which  requires  special  attention.  The  first  of  these  to  be 
considered  is  simplicity. 

§  10.    SIMPLICITY. 

By  simplicity  is  meant  the  choice  of  simple  words,  and  their 
presentation  in  an  unaffected  manner.  This  quality  is  a  chief 
characteristic  of  the  most  ancient  literatures,  and  of  the  oldest 
writings  in  any  language.  It  is  very  perceptible  in  the  narra- 
tive portions  of  the  sacred  Scriptures.  In  the  Greek  Iliad  and 
Odyssey,  the  German  "Nibelungenlied,"  the  Spanish  "Cid,"the 
Norman  metrical  romance,  the  English  ballads,  we  find  early 
poetry  to  be  above  all  things  simple  and  natural  ;  and  the 
same  is  true  of  early  prose,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  writings  of 


Perspicuity  in   Words, — Simplicity.  19 

the  Greek  Herodotus,  the  Italian  Boccaccio,  the  English 
Mandeville,  and  the  French  Froissart.  One  reason  for  this  is 
to  be  found  in  the  condition  of  language,  which  in  its  earlier 
stages  is  always  fresher  and  more  artless;  while  in  its  later 
developments  there  is  a  tendency  to  elaboration  and  affecta- 
tion. 

As  literature  grows,  the  arts  of  embellishment  are  made  use 
of  to  a  continually  increasing  degree ;  but  there  are  always 
many  who  from  their  own  genius  prefer  the  plain  and  unaffect- 
ed manner  to  the  grand  and  imposing.  Such  simplicity  is 
often  combined  with  easy  grace  and  tender  pathos  ;  and  its 
effect  is  more  striking  in  times  when  an  artificial  diction  is  in 
vogue.  Thus,  while  Johnson  was  composing  his  sonorous  pe- 
riods, Goldsmith  was  writing  those  delightful  passages  where 
wit,  humor,  philosophy,  and  pathos  are  all  expressed  with  that 
charm  which  belongs  to  the  unconscious  grace  of  childhood. 
Among  prose  writers,  Bunyan,  Defoe,  Addison,  Steele,  Sterne, 
and  Thackeray  are  conspicuous  for  this  quality ;  and  among 
poets,  Cowper,  Burns,  and  Wordsworth.  This  subject  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  following  verses,  which  are  translated  from 
the  German  of  Elizabeth  Gliick  : 

"  That  thy  true  soul 
May  wed  with  mine, 
And  that  I  may 
Be  ever  thine, 

"  I  pray,  and  trust 

In  God's  sole  might 
To  keep  us  one, 

And  so — good-night." 

The  charm  of  unaffected  simplicity  is  nowhere  more  touch- 
ingly  exhibited  than  in  the  following  lines  by  Wordsworth  : 

"She  dwelt  among  the  untrodden  ways 
Beside  the  springs  of  Dove, 
A  maid  whom  there  were  none  to  praise 
And  very  few  to  love. 

**A  violet  by  the  mossy  stone 
Half  hidden  from  the  eye  ! 
Fair  as  a  star  when  only  one 
Is  shining  in  the  sky. 
B 


20  Elemejits  of  Rhetoric, 

"  She  lived  unknown,  and  few  could  know 
When  Lucy  ceased  to  be ; 
But  she  is  in  her  grave,  and  oh. 
The  diflference  to  me !" 

§   II.    CONCRETE  TERMS    SIMPLER   THAN   ABSTRACT. 

The  simplest  and  most  intelligible  words  are  those  which  de- 
scribe common  things  and  common  actions.  Opposed  to  these 
are  all  general  and  abstract  terms.  The  difference  between 
these  two  classes  of  words  may  be  seen  by  comparing  a  plain 
narrative  of  fact  with  exposition  in  philosophy.  Concrete 
terms  are  understood  without  trouble,  but  abstract  terms  give 
rise  to  difficulty.  The  respective  effects  of  these  are  visible  in 
other  qualities  of  style  and  departments  of  literature ;  for  while 
they  have  a  direct  bearing  upon  perspicuity,  they  assume  a 
greater  importance  in  connection  with  energy  of  expression 
and  the  language  of  the  emotions ;  and  they  will  receive  fur- 
ther consideration  in  the  discussion  of  those  subjects. 

§  12.  WORDS  OF  ANGLO-SAXON  ORIGIN  CONDUCIVE  TO  SIMPLICITY. 

Simplicity  is  best  attained  by  the  employment  of  words  of 
Anglo-Saxon  origin. 

The  English  language  has  a  power  of  absorbing  foreign  words 
which  distinguishes  it  from  all  others,  and  makes  it  capable  on 
this  account  alone  of  becoming  the  dominant  speech  of  the 
world.  It  has  received  contributions  from  many  sources  ;  but 
by  far  the  largest  class  of  words  which  have  thus  far  been  ab- 
sorbed by  our  mother  tongue  consists  of  those  which  have  had 
a  Latin  origin.  The  chief  cause  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Norman  conquest,  which,  by  subjecting  the  English  people  to 
the  influence  of  a  race  of  men  who  spoke  a  language  derived 
from  the  Latin,  caused  the  introduction  of  many  words  out  of 
that  vocabulary.  After  this  the  admission  of  words  of  Latin 
origin  was  easier,  and  the  influence  of  the  universities  and  of  the 
learned  class  has  ever  since  tended  towards  the  multiplication 
of  such  words.  Thus  our  language  is  at  present  highly  Latin- 
ized, and  presents  to  the  cursory  observer  a  twofold  character, 
being  in  part  native  English,  or  Anglo-Saxon,  as  it  is  called,  and 
in  part  Latin. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  a  knowledge  of  the  true  proportion  of 
these  words  in  our  language,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  examine  die- 


Perspicuity  in  Words, — Simplicity.  21 

tionaries  ;  for  these  contain  a  large  number  of  technical  terms, 
which,  being  chiefly  derived  from  Latin  and  Greek,  show  a  pre- 
ponderance of  words  of  foreign  origin.  The  true  way  of  judg- 
ing is  by  an  examination  of  the  literature. 

From  an  examination  of  the  dictionary,  Dean  Trench  comes 
to  the  following  conclusion  :  Suppose  the  English  language 
to  be  divided  into  one  hundred  parts  ;  of  these,  to  make  a 
rough  distribution,  sixty  are  Anglo-Saxon  ;  thirty  are  Latin  ; 
five  Greek  ;  the  other  five  parts  are  to  be  divided  among  all 
the  other  languages  from  which  isolated  words  have  been  de- 
rived. 

But  when  the  works  of  standard  authors  are  examined  a  dif- 
ferent result  is  obtained.  Such  an  examination  was  made  by 
Sharon  Turner,  and  the  estimate  reached  by  him  has  been 
widely  adopted.  But  his  examination  was  very  slight,  since 
the  passages  from  each  author  did  not  consist  of  more  than  a 
hundred  or  a  hundred  and  fifty  words. 

A  more  thorough  and  extensive  search  was  made  by  Mr. 
George  P.  Marsh,  the  result  of  which  is  ^o  be  found  in  his 
"  Lectures  on  the  English  Language." 

The  following  table  is  the  result  of  another  examination, 
made  in  the  same  manner  and  upon  the  same  scale  as  that  of 
Mr.  Marsh. 

§  13.  TABLE   SHOWING   THE   PERCENTAGE   OF   WORDS   OF  ANGLO- 
SAXON   ORIGIN    IN   DIFFERENT   BOOKS. 

THE  ENGUSH   BIBLE  AND  PRAYER-BOOK. 
Ruth 96 

Jonah 93 

Malachi 91 

The  Book  of  Common  Prayer — Morning  Service 87 

POETRY. 

Cursor  Mundi — ^418  lines 96 

Piers  Plowman,  Passus  1 92 

Chaucer,  Man  of  Lawes  Tale — 560  lines. 89 

Shakespeare,  Midsummer-Night's  Dream,  Act  1 92 

"  King  John,  Act  1 89 

Milton,  Lycidas 87 

Spenser,  Faerie  Queene,  Book  V.,  Canto  1 88 

Dryden,  Religio  Laici 80 

Butler,  Hudibras,  Canto  I. — 500  lines 88 

Pope,  To  Augustus 81 


22  Elements  of  R/ietoric. 

Cowper,  The  Task,  Book  1 80 

Scott,  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrd,  Canto  1 90 

Wordsworth,  Ode  on  Immortality 88 

Shelley,  Revolt  of  Islam,  Canto  1 85 

Byron,  Prisoner  of  Chillon 91 

"      Childe  Harold,  Canto  IV.,  stanza  cxl  to  close 83 

Tennyson,  Vivien 90 

Robert  Browning,  Christmas  Eve 88 

Mrs.  Browning,  The  Poet's  Vow 89 

Keble,  Christian  Year — 5  poems 88 

Poe,  The  Raven 85 

Longfellow,  The  Building  of  the  Ship 89 

PROSE   FICTION. 

Defoe,  Robinson  Crusoe.    The  Shipwreck  Scene,  8014  words. .  93 

Bunyan,  Pilgrim's  Progress,  3000  words. 93 

Scott,  Bride  of  Lammermoor,  Chapter  III 80 

Lord  Lytton,  Rienzi,  Chapter  1 85 

Charles  Dickens,  Pickwick-     The  Bagman's  Story 90 

George  Eliot,  Middlemarch,  Chapter  1 80 

ESSAYS  AND   EXPOSITORY   WRITINGS. 

Hooker's  Ecclesia^ical  Polity,  Book  I.,  Chapters  IV.,  V.,  VI.  .  89 

Junius,  Letter  III.  to  Sir  William  Draper 75 

De  Quincey,  Apparition  on  the  Brocken,  and  Savannah  la  Mar.  82 

Macaulay,  Preface  to  the  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome 76 

Emerson,  Essay  on  Circles 80 

Henry  Rogers,  Review  of  Sydney  Smith's  Lectures  on  Moral 

Philosophy 71 

Hamerton,  Intellectual  Life.    To  a  Solitary  Student 72 

HISTORY. 
Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  Chapter  LIV..  68 

Hallam,  Constitutional  History,  Chapter  VII 70 

Alison,  History  of  Europe.     Introduction 68 

Froude,  History  of  England,  Chapter  I.  (one  half) 77 

Freeman,  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  Chapter  1 77 

Motley,  History  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  Chapter  1 75 

Draper,  Intellectual  Development  of  Europe,  Chapter  1 67 

ORATORY. 

Chatham,  on  the  Address  to  the  Throne 72 

Burke,  on  the  Nabob  of  Arcot's  Debts 74 

Grattan,  on  Irish  Right 73 

Erskine,  on  Paine's  Age  of  Reason 73 

Brougham,  against  the  Durham  Clergy 75 

Bishop  Butler,  Sermon  on  the  Ignorance  of  Man 80 

Rev.  F.  W.  Robertson,  Sermon  on  the  Doubt  of  Thomas 82 


Perspicuity  in  Words, — Simplicity,  23 

WORKS  ON   RHETORIC. 

Blair,  Rhetoric.     Introduction 69 

Campbell,  "  "  69 

Whately,     "  "  68 

NEWSPAPERS. 

London  Times,        on  the  Eastern  Question 72 

London  Telegraph,      "  "  7° 

Pall  Mall  Gazette,       "  "  80 

New  York  Herald,      "       Presidential  Election 67 

New  York  Tribune,     "  "  7° 

New  York  Sun,  "  "  73 

The  above  table  leads  to  the  follownig  conclusions  : 

1.  In  the  literature  of  the  present  day  there  is  a  larger  pro- 
portion of  words  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin  than  would  appear 
from  an  examination  of  the  dictionaries. 

2.  In  poetry  the  proportion  of  such  words  is  larger  than  in 
prose. 

3.  From  the  above  a  new  table  may  be  deduced,  showing  the 
relative  proportion  of  Anglo-Saxon  words  in  different  depart- 
ments of  literature : 


6.  Oratory 76 

7.  History 72 

8.  Newspapers 72 

9.  Works  on  Rhetoric 69 


1.  The  English  Bible 93 

2.  The  Prayer-book 87 

3.  Poetry 88 

4.  Prose  Fiction 87 

5.  Essays 78 

Surprise  may  be  felt  at  the  large  proportion  of  Anglo-Saxon 
words  in  prose  fiction  ;  but  this  may  be  accounted  for,  first, 
because  it  deals  largely  with  domestic  affairs  and  matters  of  a 
trivial  and  commonplace  character  ;  and,  secondly,  because  it 
abounds  in  dialogue,  and  all  the  colloquialisms  of  common  con- 
versation. 

§    14.  ANGLO-SAXON    FORMS    THE    ESSENTIAL    ELEMENT    IN   THE 
ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 

Anglo-Saxon  constitutes  the  essential  element  in  the  Eng- 
lish language.    This  may  be  seen  from  the  following  summary  : 

1.  English  grammar  is  almost  exclusively  Anglo-Saxon. 

2.  To  Anglo-Saxon  belongs  the  vocabulary  of  common  life, 
with  all  our  colloquialisms,  idiomatic  phrases,  and  the  language 
of  conversation.     Among  the  uneducated  this  is  very  marked ; 


24  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

but  it  is  almost  equally  so  in  those  circles  where  the  best  and 
purest  English  is  spoken ;  for  there  the  proportion  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  words  is  higher  than  in  contemporary  literature,  and  the 
undue  use  of  words  of  Latin  origin  is  regarded  as  pedantic,  or 
in  bad  taste.  The  chief  difference  between  colloquial  and  lit- 
erary English  is  the  predominance  in  the  former  of  our  primi- 
tive speech. 

3.  To  this  may  be  added  the  language  of  business ;  of  the 
street,  market,  and  farm  ;  of  sailor  and  fisherman  ;  and  of  most 
of  the  ordinary  pursuits  of  life. 

4.  It  comprises  the  language  of  the  emotions — love,  hate, 
hope,  fear,  sorrow,  shame,  and  the  like.  It  has  given  names  to 
most  of  those  objects  which  are  associated  with  our  strongest 
feelings — as  home,  hearth,  fireside,  life,  death,  sickness,  health ; 
and  claims  the  words  of  childhood  and  youth,  which  for  all 
after-life  have  the  deepest  meaning  and  are  surrounded  by  the 
most  moving  associations.  The  Anglo-Saxon  speech  which  the 
child  learns  at  his  mother's  knee  is  the  speech  which  he  best 
loves  in  the  hour  of  death. 

5.  While  general  and  abstract  terms  are  derived  from  the 
Latin,  those  which  are  special  and  definite  are  Anglo-Saxon. 
This  is  illustrated  in  the  following  way  in  an  essay  by  Henry 
Rogers  :  "  '  Move '  and  '  motion '  are  general  terms  of  Latin 
origin  ;  but  all  the  special  terms  for  expressing  varieties  of  mo- 
tion are  Anglo-Saxon,  as,  'run,'  'walk,'  'leap,'  'stagger,'  'slip,' 
'step,'  'slide.'  'Color*  is  Latin,  but  'white,'  'black,'  'green,' 
'yellow,'  'blue,'  'red,'  'brown'  are  Anglo-Saxon.  'Crime'  is 
Latin,  but  '  murder,'  '  theft,'  '  robbery,'  '  to  lie,'  *  to  steal '  are 
Anglo-Saxon.  '  Member'  and  'organ,'  as  applied  to  the  body, 
are  Latin  or  Greek,  but  '  ear,'  '  eye,'  '  hand,'  '  foot,'  '  lip,' 
'  mouth,'  '  teeth,'  '  hair,'  '  finger,'  '  nostril '  are  Anglo-Saxon. 
'Animal'  is  Latin,  but  'man,'  'horse,'  'cow,'  'sheep,'  'dog,' 
*cat,'  'calf,'  'goat'  are  Anglo-Saxon.  'Number'  is  Latin,  but 
all  our  cardinal  and  ordinal  numbers  as  far  as  a  million  are 
Anglo-Saxon." 

§  15.  THE  MOST  POPULAR  BOOKS  IN  THE  LANGUAGE  EXHIBIT 
A  PREDOMINANCE  OF  THE  ANGLO-SAXON  ELEMENT. 

From  the  foregoing  statements  it  will  be  seen  that  words  de- 
rived from  Anglo-Saxon  sources  are  always  the  simplest  and 


Perspicuity  in  Words. — Simplicity,  25 

the  most  intelligible.  These  form  the  vocabulary  of  children, 
of  the  uneducated ;  and  in  the  language  of  social  intercourse 
even  of  the  most  cultivated  classes  such  words  outnumber 
those  of  Latin  origin  far  more  than  in  general  literature. 

If  we  seek  for  the  most  intelligible  books  in  the  language, 
we  shall  find  them  in  those  which  are  most  widely  circulated ; 
and  if  we  seek  for  those  which  are  most  widely  circulated,  we 
shall  find  that  by  universal  consent  they  are  the  following : 
the  English  Bible,  the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  Robinson  Crusoe, 
and  Gulliver's  Travels.  The  English  Bible,  for  various  reasons, 
surpasses  all  other  books  in  circulation.  The  authorized  ver- 
sion is  rightly  considered  as  the  noblest  body  of  English  prose 
which  the  language  possesses.  Its  excellence  may  best  be 
seen  from  a  comparison  with  other  versions.  If  it  be  compared 
with  the  "  Douay  "  Bible,  the  inferiority  of  the  latter  will  at 
once  be  apparent ;  and  this  inferiority  is  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  translators  of  the  "  Douay "  version  were  not  sufficiently 
alive  to  the  superior  force  and  clearness  of  Anglo-Saxon  words, 
and  adopted  many  of  Latin  origin.  In  the  authorized  version, 
on  the  contrary,  the  proportion  of  Anglo-Saxon  words  is  greater 
than  in  a^ny  other  English  book, 

Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress  stands  next  to  the  English  Bible 
in  point  of  circulation,  and  has  the  same  characteristics,  name- 
ly, great  simplicity  of  style,  and  a  great  preponderance  of 
Anglo-Saxon  words.  This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  opening 
sentences : 

"  As  I  walked  through  the  wilderness  of  this  world  I  lighted  upon  a  cer- 
tain place,  where  was  a  den,  and  laid  me  down  to  sleep;  and  as  I  slept  I 
dreamed  a  dream,  and  behold  1  saw  a  man  clothed  with  rags  standing  in  a 
certain  place,  with  his  face  from  his  own  house,  a  book  in  his  hand,  and  a 
great  burden  upon  his  back.  I  looked  and  saw  him  open  the  book,  and  as 
he  read  he  wept  and  trembled ;  and,  not  being  abl&  to  contain,  he  brake  out 
into  a  lamentable  cry,  saying.  What  shall  I  do  ?" 

In  this  passage  ninety-three  per  cent,  of  the  words  are  of 
Anglo-Saxon  origin. 

About  thirty  years  ago  a  new  version  of  the  Pilgrim's  Prog- 
ress was  published  in  England  "  for  the  use  of  the  children  of 
the  aristocracy."  It  was  written  by  a  clergyman,  who  was  of- 
fended at  what  he  considered  the  "  vulgarity  "  of  Bunyan.  His 
version  was  chiefly  characterized  by  a  superabundance  of  long 


26  Elentejits  of  Rhetoric. 

words  of  Latin  origin,  and  was  a  melancholy  exhibition  of  min- 
gled ignorance,  ineptitude,  and  bad  taste.  It  never  attained 
to  any  circulation,  and  is  long  since  forgotten. 

If  we  compare  with  the  above  the  following  passage  from 
Burke,  a  great  difference  will  be  perceived  : 

"This  idea  of  a  liberal  descent  inspires  us  with  a  sense  of  habitual  native 
dignity,  which  prevents  that  upstart  insolence  almost  inevitably  adhering  to 
and  disgracing  those  who  are  the  first  acquirers  of  any  distinction.  By  this 
means  our  liberty  becomes  a  noble  freedom.  It  carries  an  imposing  and 
majestic  aspect.  It  has  a  pedigree  and  illustrating  ancestors.  It  has  its 
bearings  and  its  ensigns  armorial.  It  has  its  gallery  of  portraits,  its  monu- 
mental inscriptions,  its  records,  evidences,  and  titles.  We  procure  reverence 
to  our  civil  institutions,  on  the  principle  upon  which  nature  teaches  us  to 
revere  individual  man ;  on  account  of  their  age,  and  on  account  of  those 
from  whom  they  are  descended." 

In  this  passage  only  sixty-three  per  cent,  of  the  words  are  of 
Anglo-Saxon  origin. 

§    1 6.   MANY    LATIN   WORDS   ARE    EQUALLY    SIMPLE. 

Although  words  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin  are,  as  a  whole,  the 
most  simple  and  perspicuous,  yet  it  must  be  observed  that  very 
many  words  of  Latin  origin  are  equally  so.  Such  words  have 
been  long  in  the  language,  and  have  become  so  thoroughly  nat- 
uralized that  it  is  only  by  a  di^stinct  effort  of  the  mind  that  any 
difference  of  derivation  can  be  seen.  Those  writers  who  seek 
above  all  things  after  clearness  and  intelligibility,  are  therefore 
not  expected  to  avoid  good  and  useful  words  merely  because 
they  are  of  Latin  origin,  for  this  would  be  doing  violence  to  the 
genius  of  our  language,  but  merely  to  avoid"  such  as  are  not  in 
common  use  ;  and,  again,  when  an  Anglo-Saxon  word  is  as  ex- 
pressive as  a  Latin  word,  to  give  the  former  the  preference. 

§  17.  IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  LATIN  ELEMENT  IN  OUR  LANGUAGE. 

Apart  from  the  subject  of  perspicuity,  the  Latin  element  in 
our  language  is  of  inestimable  value,  and  tends  to  give  it  that 
comprehensiveness,  that  all-expressiveness,  and  that  rich  and  va- 
ried music  which  make  English  literature  the  crown  and  glory 
of  all  the  works  of  man.  For  by  being  made  up  of  these  two 
elements,  the  English  language  exhibits  the  strength,  tender- 
ness, and  simplicity  of  the  Teutonic  tongues,  together  with  the 
euphony,  sonorousness,  and  harmony  of  the  Latin. 


Perspicuity  in  Words* — Precision,  27 


CHAPTER  III. 

PERSPICUITY  IN  WORDS,  CONTINUED.— PRECISION. 
§    18.  PRECISION. 

Another  essential  to  perspicuity  is  precision,  which  consists 
in  the  selection  of  such  words  as  may  exhibit  neither  more  nor 
less  than  the  meaning  which  the  writer  intends  to  convey. 
Precision  may  also  be  defined  as  the  choice  of  the  best  possible 
word,  so  as  to  express  the  idea  with  the  greatest  possible  ac- 
curacy. It  refers  in  the  first  place  to  exactness  of  expression; 
but  where  ideas  are  expressed  in  the  most  exact  manner  pos- 
sible, there  are  other  results  beside  perspicuity.  Thus  we  find 
that  where  precision  is  attained  there  is  not  only  clearness,  but 
great  energy  and  emphasis. 

When  we  examine  the  works  of  writers  who  are  most  noted 
for  precision,  we  find  that  they  are  conspicuous  not  only  for 
clearness,  but  also  for  great  force  of  expression.  Such  writers 
are  foremost  in  literature;  their  works  are  studied  by  all;  they 
are  models  of  style ;  and  they  abound  in  sentences  which  are 
widely  quoted,  and  used  as  common  maxims  or  proverbial  say- 
ings. Of  such  writers  the  most  eminent  is  perhaps  the  poet 
Pope,  who  made  this  peculiar  quality  his  chief  aim. 

§  19.    PRECISION    IN    SUBSTANTIVE   TERMS. 

The  subject  of  precision  will  be  best  considered  by  an  ex- 
amination of  the  constructions  in  which  its  presence  is  most 
marked.  These  are:  ist,  Substantive  terms;  2d,  Attributive 
terms ;  3d,  Predicative  terms. 

I.  Substantive  terras. 

I.  Precision  may  be  seen  here,  first,  in  the  application  of 
terms  or  designations.  An  example  of  this  may  be  found  in 
the  following  passage  from  Junius  (to  the  Duke  of  Grafton) : 

"  I  do  not  give  you  to  posterity  as  a  pattern  to  imitate,  but  as  an  example 
to  deter  ;  and  as  your  conduct  comprehends  everything  that  a  wise  or  hon- 

B2 


28  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

est  minister  should  avoid,  I  mean  to  make  you  a  negative  instruction  to  your 
successors  forever." 

There  is  great  delicacy  of  expression  associated  with  great 
subtlety  of  conception  in  this  sentence.  It  is  a  common  thing 
to  speak  of  actions  that  should  be  imitated,  and  which  thus  be- 
come instructive ;  but  it  is  more  unusual  and  more  difficult  to 
speak  of  actions  that  should  be  avoided,  and  make  them  a 
"  negative  instruction." 

This  criticism  is  also  applicable  to  the  following  passage 
from  Burke's  Letter  to  the  Duke  of  Bedford  : 

"  If  his  Grace  can  contemplate  the  result  of  this  innovation  .  .  .  viithout  a 
thorough  abhorrence  of  everything  they  say  and  everything  they  do,  I  am 
amazed  at  the  morbid  strength  or  the  natural  infirmity  of  his  mind." 

"  Morbid  strength "  is  suggestive  of  the  capacity  to  inflict 
evil  which  belongs  to  the  man  familiar  with  wickedness  and 
cruelty;  "natural  infirmity"  indicates  one  who^  lacks  common 
intelligence,  and  contemplates  crime  with  the  stolidity  of  an 
idiot.  The  alternative  presented  here  with  such  refinement  of 
language  is  the  same  as  that  which  would  be  stated  by  a  less 
skilful  writer  in  the  abusive  terms  "villain"  and  "fool." 

2.  Precision  is  sometimes  attained  by  the  use  of  proper 
names,  especially  where  a  name  is  put  for  a  class.  This  is 
illustrated  by  the  following  lines  from  Pope  : 

"What  can  ennoble  sots,  or  slaves,  or  cowards? 
Alas  I  not  all  the  blood  of  all  the  Howards." 

Here  there  is  a  close  and  accurate  specification  of  different 
classes  of  men,  concluding  with  the  mention  of  a  class  by  the 
word  "  Howards,"  where  one  well-known  name  is  put  for  noble 
families  in  general. 

♦•  And  more  true  joy  Marcellus  exiled  feels 
Than  Caesar  with  a  senate  at  his  heels." 

Great  precision  is  gained  here  by  the  use  of  these  names, 
the  one  of  an  exiled  patriot,  the  other  of  a  triumphant  t)Tant. 

"  If  parts  allure  thee,  think  how  Bacon  shined, 
-  The  wisest,  brightest,  meanest  of  mankind  !" 

Precision  is  shown  here  in  selecting  Bacon  from  among  all 
men  as  the  highest  example  of  human  genius.  The  summary 
of  his  character  affords  a  still  better  instance.     In  these  three 


Perspicuity  in  Words. — Precision.  29 

words  are  found  that  popular  estimate  of  this  great  man  which 
prevailed  at  that  time,  and  to  which  this  memorable  line  gave 
new  emphasis. 

3.  Precision  in  substantive  terms  is  also  seen  when  they  as- 
sume the  form  of  definitions  or  explanations. 

There  is  great  care  and  accuracy  in  the  treatment  of  the  fol- 
lowing passage  from  Disraeli's  speech  on  the  death  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  : 

♦'  The  Duke  of  Wellington  left  to  his  countrymen  a  great  legacy,  greater 
even  than  his  glory.  He  left  them  the  contemplation  of  his  character.  I 
will  not  say  that  his  conduct  revived  the  sense  of  duty  in  England.  I  will 
not  say  that  of  our  country.  '  But  that  his  conduct  inspired  public  life  with 
a  purer  and  more  masculine  tone,  I  cannot  doubt  His  career  rebukes 
restless  vanity,  and  reprimands  the  irregular  ebullitions  of  a  morbid  ego- 
tism." 

The  true  meaning  of  this  passage  is  to  be  found  in  the  care- 
fully chosen  words  of  the  conclusion ;  yet  in  order  to  heighten 
their  precision,  and  give  them  increased  emphasis,  the  speaker 
introduces  them  by  mentioning  that  which  he  will  not  say,  and 
by  these  very  words  he  insinuates  with  g^eat  delicacy  the  very 
fact  which  he  represents  himself  as  unwilling  to  state. 

The  same  method  is  followed  by  Burke,  when  he  says,  "  I 
do  not  say  I  saved  my  country,  I  am  sure  I  did  my  country  im- 
portant service.  There  were  few  indeed  that  did  not  at  that 
time  acknowledge  it." 

In  the  following  passage  there  is  a  careful  definition  : 

"  I  mean  to  give  peace.  Peace  implies  reconciliation ;  and  where  there 
has  been  a  material  dispute,  recondliation  does  in  a  manner  imply  conces- 
sion on  the  one  part  or  the  other." — Burke. 

4.  Precision  is  very  striking  in  antithetical  sentences. 

"  To  make  a  virtue  of  iie€essity."~SHAKESPEARK. 

Here  the  contrast  of  "virtue"  with  "necessity"  renders  each 
word  more  distinct  in  its  meaning; 

••  There  is,  however,  a  limit  at  which  forbearance  ceases  to  be  a  virtue."— 
Burke. 

Here  the  stress  is  laid  upon  "forbearance"  and  "virtue," 
which  are  each  more  sharply  defined  by  contrast. 

"  Kings  will  be  tyrants  from  policy  when  subjects  are  rebels  from  prin- 
ciple."— Burke. 


30  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  word  "kings"  is  here  contrasted  with  "subjects;"  "ty- 
rants" with  "rebels;"  "policy"  with  "principle;"  and  the  ar- 
ray of  such  terms  in  opposition  results  in  a  careful  accuracy  of 
meaning. 

Junius,  in  his  letter  to  the  Duke  of  Grafton,  says  with  his 
usual  malignity : 

"  In  this  humble  imitative  line  you  might  long  have  proceeded  safe  and 
contemptible.  You  might  probably  never  have  risen  to  the  dignity  of  be- 
ing hated,  and  you  might  even  have  been  despised  with  moderation." 

This  is  one  of  those  passages  upon  which  Junius  expended 
an  unusual  amount  of  the  care  and  study  that,  according  to  his 
own  statement,  characterized  his  composition.  The  antithesis 
of  "safe"  and  "contemptible"  may  be  noticed,  and  also  that 
of  "  hated  "  and  "  despised."  The  studied-bitterness  with  which 
Junius  wrote  was  never  more  forcibly  displayed  than  in  such 
expressions  as  "have  risen  to  the  dignity  of  being  hated;" 
"despised  with  moderation;"  and  the  sting  lies  in  the  perfect 
precision  of  the  words. 

§  20.  PRECISION    IN   ATTRIBUTIVE   TERMS. 

II.  We  have,  in  the  second  place,  to  consider  precision  in 
attributive  terms. 

I.  This  is  especially  seen  in  the  application  of  epithets,  and 
may  best  be  illustrated  by  selecting  some  one  subject,  and  com- 
paring the  ways  in  which  it  is  presented  by  different  writers. 

The  sea  affords  a  theme  upon  which  many  poets  have  loved 
to  dwell,  and  whose  powers  they  seek  to  set  forth  by  vivid  de- 
scriptive words.     Byron's  lines  are  familiar  to  all : 

•'  Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  Ocean,  roll." 

"Deep  and  dark  blue"  is  an  expression  of  the  most  general 
kind,  without  any  very  definite  force  or  meaning.  Barry  Corn- 
wall's lines  are  equally  familiar: 

"  The  sea,  the  sea,  the  open  sea. 
The  blue,  the  fresh,  the  ever  free  1" 

"  Open,"  "  blue,"  "  fresh,"  "  free,"  are  all  words  which  lack 
precision;  they  are  commonplace,  and  might  suggest  them- 
selves to  any  writer.  Far  different  from  these  is  "  the  multitu- 
dinous" sea  of  Shakespeare,  which  is  full  of  suggestions  of  roll- 


Perspicuity  in  Words. — Precision.  31 

ing  billows  and  resistless  power;  while  in  the  very  sound  of 
the  word  itself  there  is  something  that  is  not  unlike  the  thing 
which  it  represents.  The  uvi]ptd^ov  yiXaa^a  of  ^schylus  (the 
infinite  laughter  of  ocean  waves)  is  of  a  higher  description  ; 
and  the  iro\v(p\oi(Tl3oio  daXaafTjjq  of  Homer  has  become  proverb- 
ial for  pregnant  meaning  and  sonorous  music.  These  last  have 
a  rare  precision  and  effective  force,  which  have  made  them  ad- 
mired in  all  ages,  and  have  caused  them  to  be  quoted  so  often 
that  they  have  become  hackneyed  by  repetition. 

The  songs  of  birds  form  another  favorite  theme  for  the  poets, 
and  especially  that  of  the  nightingale.  It  will  be  instructive 
to  compare  the  epithets  applied  to  this  by  various  writers. 

"  It  is  the  hour  when  from  the  boughs 
The  nightingale's  high  note  is  heard."— Byron. 

Here  the  epithet  "  high "  is  general,  and  of  no  particular 
meaning.  It  is  quite  evident  that  the  poet  wrote  this  with- 
out thinking  very  much  about  the  real  nature  of  the  thing  de- 
scribed. Far  different  from  this  is  the  description  of  the  same 
thing  by  Keats,  whose  genius  led  him  irresistibly  to  all  forms 
of  the  beautiful : 

*'  While  thou  art  pouring  forth  thy  soul  abroad 
In  such  an  ecstasy, 
Still  wouldst  thou  sing,  and  I  have  ears  in  vain. 
To  thy  high  requiem  become  a  sod." 

The  epithet  "high"  is  here  used,  but  in  conjunction  with 
other  words  which  greatly  refine  and  at  the  same  time  enlarge 
the  meaning. 

The  same  poet  also  says  : 

"  Adieu,  adieu,  thy  plaintive  anthem  fades 
Past  the  near  meadows." 

A  different  character  is  here  ascribed  to  the  note  of  the 
nightingale  ;  and  still  another  by  Milton  in  the  following : 

"The  wakeful  nightingale. 
She  all  night  long  her  amorous  descant  sang." 

"  Plaintive"  and  "  amorous"  are  words  which  are  very  differ- 
ent, yet  they  each  state  in  a  precise  and  specific  manner  the 
poet's  thought ;  while  such  general  terms  as  "  high,"  "  low," 
"  musical  "  are  little  better  than  conventionalisms,  and  are  sug- 


32  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

gestive  of  such  expressions  as  the  "  brave"  soldier,  the  "  bright" 
sun,  the  "  dark  "  night. 

With  these  may  be  compared  Wordsworth's  lines  to  the 
cuckoo : 

"  O  cuckoo,  shall  I  call  thee  bird, 
Or  but  a  wandering  voice? 


Even  yet  thou  art  to  me 
No  bird,  but  an  invisible  thing, 
A  voice,  a  mystery." 


In  such  words  as  these  there  is  revealed  a  rare  power  of  im- 
aginative conception  and  great  accuracy  of  expression.  They 
are  as  far  as  possible  from  the  commonplace,  and  form  the  lan- 
guage of  true  poetry. 

Finally,  let  us  take  a  few  lines  from  Shelley's  Ode  to  a 
Skylark  : 

"In  profuse  strains  of  unpremeditated  art. 


I  have  never  heard 
Praise  of  love  or  wine 
That  panted  forth  a  flood  of  rapture  so  divine. 
With  thy  clear  keen  joyance, 
Languor  cannot  be." 

Words  like  these  carry  us  up  to  the  heights  of  poetical  inspira- 
tion. The  poet's  mind  is  overpowered  by  his  theme,  yet  his 
capacity  for  expressing  that  theme  never  fails  him.  His  words 
set  forth  with  exquisite  refinement  and  subtlety  the  most  deli- 
cate and  evanescent  tints  of  meaning.  Describing  the  song  of 
a  skylark  may  be  compared  to  an  artist's  attempt  to  paint  a 
rainbow;  yet  in  this  attempt  Shelley  has  not  failed.  He  has 
tested  to  the  uttermost  the  capacities  of  language,  and  has  ex- 
hausted its  resources  in  this  wonderful  ode. 

2.  Precision  in  attributive  terms  may  also  be  seen  in  the  de- 
scription of  qualities,  and  in  the  use  of  qualifying  terms. 

**Such  language,"  says  Burke,  "might  have  been  spared, 
were  it  only  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  ghost  of  departed  friend- 
ship." 

He  alludes  here  to  his  rupture  with  Fox.  A  commonplace 
statement  would  have  been  something  like,  "  were  it  only  from 
consideration  for  our  former  friendship ;"  but  in  these  words  all 
this  is  expressed,  while  much  more  is  implied. 


Perspicuity  in  Words. — Precision.  33 

Landor  exhibits  the  same  thing  in  a  fine  passage  where  he 
speaks  of  the  difference  between  Shakespeare  and  Bacon  : 

"  There  is  as  great  a  difference  between  Shakespeare  and  Bacon  as  be- 
tween an  American  forest  and  a  London  timber-yard.  In  the  timber-yard 
the  materials  are  sawed  and  squared  and  set  across  ;  in  the  forest  we  have 
the  natural  form  of  the  tree,  all  its  growth,  all  its  branches,  all  its  leaves,  all 
the  mosses  that  grow  about  it,  all  the  birds  and  insects  that  inhabit  it ;  now 
deep  shadows  absorbing  the  whole  wilderness  ;  now  bright  bursting  glades, 
with  exuberant  grass  and  flowers  and  fruitage  ;  now  untroubled  skies  ;  now 
terrific  thunderstorms  ;  everywhere  multiformity  ;  everywhere  immensity." 

This  description  of  a  forest  displays  distinctness  of  conception 
and  accuracy  of  statement;  but  its  chief  virtue  consists  in  the 
fact  that  it  is  applied  figuratively  to  Shakespeare ;  so  that  from 
the  framing  and  setting  forth  of  this  comparison  there  arises 
another  and  a  higher  beauty. 

§  21.  PRECISION   IN   PREDICATIVE  TERMS. 

III.  In  the  third  place  we  have  to  consider  precision  in 
predicative  terms. 

I.  These  may  refer  to  acts. 

This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  passage  from 
Thackeray : 

"  It  is  said  the  king  winced  when  he  first  saw  his  homely  little  bride ;  but, 
however  that  may  be,  he  was  a  true  and  faithful  husband  to  her,  as  she  was 
a  faithful  and  loving  wife." 

Compare  the  word  "  winced"  with  such  common  expressions 
as  "  shrank  back,"  "  felt  disgusted,"  "  was  disappointed,"  and 
its  precise  force  will  at  once  be  apparent.  The  word  "  homely" 
also  has  a  meaning  of  its  own,  which  makes  it  most  appropriate 
in  its  application. 

"  Mother,  for  love  of  grace, 
Lay  not  that  flattering  unction  to  your  soul 
That  not  your  trespass  but  my  madness  speaks ; 
It  will  but  skin  and  film  the  ulcerous  place. 
Whiles  rank  corruption,  mining  all  within, 
Infects  unseen." — Shakespeare. 

This  whole  passage  affords  a  study  in  precision.  Its  figura- 
tive character  does  not  at  all  detract  from  this,  but  rather  aug- 
ments it.  "  Lay  not  that  flattering  unction  to  your  soul "  is 
one  of  those  Shakespearian  phrases  which  have  entered  into 


34  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

our  common  speech  by  virtue  of  its  expressiveness.     "  Skin  " 
and  "  film  "  are  singularly  exact  and  suggestive. 

"  It  is  not  that  you  do  wrong  by  design,  but  that  you  should  never  do 
right  by  mistake."— Junius. 

The  contrast  between  these  two  acts  is  sharply  drawn,  and, 
as  usual  with  Junius,  full  of  malicious  insinuation. 

2.  They  may  refer  to  the  state  or  condition.  An  example  is 
found  in  Milton's  lines: 

"  Fallen  cherub,  to  be  weak  is  miserable, 
Doing  or  suffering." 

The  conciseness  of  this  statement  is  equalled  by  its  keen 
distinctness. 

"  One  flaunts  in  rags,  one  flutters  in  brocade." 

Pope  exhibits  here  his   usual  exactness   of  expression  in 
coupling  these  particular  verbs  with  these  particular  nouns. 
Gouverneur  Morris,  writing  of  Lafayette,  says: 

"  Dreadful  situation  !  Obliged  to  do  what  he  abhors,  or  suffer  an  igno- 
minious death,  with  the  certainty  that  the  sacrifice  of  his  life  will  not  pre- 
vent the  mischief" 

This  painful  position  in  which  Lafayette  was  placed  could 
not  be  presented  with  greater  vividness  or  distinctness. 

§  22.  CLEARNESS   OF   CONCEPTION   NECESSARY   TO   PRECISION. 

The  chief  essential  to  precision  of  expression  is  clearness 
and  accuracy  of  conception,  for  when  the  writer  thinks  with 
certainty  he  will  generally  express  himself  with  certainty.  Ob- 
scurity of  style,  vagueness  of  statement,  loose  and  inaccurate 
phraseology  will  generally  be  found  to  originate  in  hasty  or 
careless  conceptions;  for  when  the  mind  is  at  no  pains  to 
acquire  a  firm  grasp  of  the  subject,  no  clear  and  definite  de- 
scription can  be  expected.  Precision  must,  therefore,  be  sought 
after  in  the  first  place  by  securing  a  clear  and  luminous  view 
of  that  which  is  to  be  set  forth. 

§  23.  AND    ALSO   CARE    IN    THE    USE   OF   WORDS. 

It  by  no  means  follows,  however,  that  even  a  clear  view  of 
the  subject  will  of  itself  result  in  a  clear  statement.     It  is  well 


Perspicuity  in  Words. — Precision.  35 

known  that  very  many  who  are  masters  of  particular  sciences 
fail  to  impart  them  to  others  with  any  degree  of  precision.  In 
order  to  attain  to  this,  it  is  therefore  further  necessary  that  the 
writer  attend  very  closely  to  the  study  of  words,  their  choice 
and  arrangement.  The  two  processes  are  quite  distinct;  nei- 
ther can  dispense  with  the  other;  and  while,  in  the  first  place, 
the  subject  must  be  mastered,  so  it  is  equally  necessary  that 
close  attention  be  paid  to  the  best  modes  of  expression. 

§  24.  VIOLATIONS   OF   PRECISION. — THE   FAULTY   USE   OF 
SYNONYMOUS   WORDS. 

We  have  next  to  consider  the  most  frequent  ways  in  which 
precision  is  violated. 

I.  In  the  first  place,  precision  is  violated  by  the  faulty  use 
of  synonymous  words. 

Synonymous  words  are  those  which  express  similar  ideas. 
The  fault  spoken  of  arises  when  they  are  used  to  express  the 
same  idea ;  and  as  there  is  always  a  shade  of  difference  in  the 
meaning  of  these,  it  follows  that  precision  can  only  be  attained 
to  when  such  words  are  used  with  perfect  accuracy.  This  is  a 
point  of  great  importance  in  the  English  language;  for  synon- 
ymous words  are  more  frequent  here  than  in  any  other.  The 
cause  of  this  lies  in  its  formation  :  for,  as  has  already  been 
shown,  there  was  a  primitive  English  language,  now  for  con- 
venience' sake  called  Anglo-Saxon,  upon  which  was  superim- 
posed another — the  Norman-French.  The  consequence  is  that 
there  are  many  words  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  Norman  origin  now 
in  the  language,  which  exist  side  by  side,  and  express  very 
similar  ideas.  Besides  this,  the  English,  in  common  with  other 
cultivated  languages,  is  rich  in  words  that  differ  by  nice  shades 
of  meaning,  and  to  all  of  these  the  writer  must  pay  special 
attention. 

A  familiar  example  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  Book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer,  where  the  following  words  are  associated  together: 
acknowledge  and  confess;  sins  and  wickedness;  dissemble 
arid  cloak;  humble,  lowly,  penitent,  and  obedient;  goodness 
and  mercy;  assemble  and  meet  together;  pray  and  beseech; 
pure  heart  and  humble  voice ;  erred  and  strayed ;  godly,  right- 
eous, and  sober  life,  etc. 

Synonymous  words  may  be  said  to  be  similar  as  to  their  gen- 


36  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

eral  meaning,  but  dissimilar  as  to  their  specific  meaning.  This 
is  illustrated  by  the  following : 

Female  zxidi  feminine. — Female  is  said  of  the  sex  itself  Fem- 
inine of  the  qualities  of  the  sex.  A  third  term,  effeminate,  may 
also  be  mentioned,  which  is  applied  to  feminine  qualities  dis- 
covered in  a  man. 

Untruth— falsehood. — In  the  former  there  is  no  intention  to 
deceive,  and  the  absence  of  truth  may  arise  from  ignorance  ;  in 
the  latter  the  deceit  is  intentional. 

Figure — trope. — Figure  is  a  general  term  applied  to  certain 
artificial  forms  of  expression  ;  trope  is  a  special  term  indicating 
that  kind  of  figure  by  which  a  word  is  turned  from  its  literal 
signification  to  another  of  a  different  kind — as,  the  sword  of 
state. 

Modest — bashful. — Modest  refers  to  the  habit  of  mind,  bash- 
ful-to  the  state  of  feeling;  the  one  is  commendable,  the  other 
reprehensible. 

Economy^^rugcLlity ^parsimony. — Economy  means  the  man- 
agement of  outlay  in  accordance  with  income ;  frugality,  a  lim- 
ited expenditure  from  motives  of  self-restraint  or  temperance; 
parsimony,  a  limited  expenditure  from  motives  of  avarice. 

Effect — consequence. — An  effect  proceeds  from  a  cause  ;  a 
consequence  follows  something  that  stands  to  it  simply  in  the 
relation  of  antecedent. 

Centre — middle. — Centre  involves  the  idea  of  a  circle,  middle 
has  a  more  general  application.  Macaulay  says,  "  the  centre 
of  the  grand  alley,"  in  which  he  shows  a  lack  of  his  usual  pre- 
cision. 

Happiness— blessedness. — Blessedness  is  applied  to  those  who 
enjoy  the  divine  favor,  and  who  may  not  be  actually  happy,  as 
"  Blessed  are  they  that  mourn."  In  a  recent  translation  of  the 
Scriptures  this  is  changed  to  "  Happy  are  they  that  mourn." 
The  translator,  while  aiming  after  a  supposed  verbal  accuracy, 
has  thus  missed  the  whole  point  of  the  passage,  which  is  the 
"  blessedness  "  of  affliction. 

§  25.   IMPROPRIETY. 

2.  Another  violation  of  precision  is  called  impropriety. 
It  often  happens  that  one  word  is  used  for  another  of  a  to- 
tally different  signification.     There  is  a  resemblance  either  in 


Perspicuity  in  Words, — Precision.  37 

the  appearance  of  two  words,  or  in  their  sound,  and  by  this  the 
writer  is  misled.  This  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  fault 
just  mentioned.  Synonymous  words  have  similar  meanings; 
these  words  now  under  consideration  have  totally  different 
meanings,  and  are  only  similar  in  sound  or  in  appearance. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  conspicuous  exam- 
ples : 

Demeati. — "I  would  not  demean  myself"  is  an  example  of 
impropriety  in  the  use  of  this  word.  The  mistake  arises  from 
its  resemblance  to  the  adjective  mean,  i.  e.,  base,  low.  But  the 
true  signification  of  the  word  is  "  to  behave,"  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  substantive  "demeanor." 

I  lay  and  I  lie. — These  are  often  confounded.  Additional 
confusion  arises  in  the  employment  of  the  past  tenses.     The 

forms  are — 

Present — lay^  Past — laid. 

Present— //>,  Past — lay. 

The  resemblance  between  the  present  of  one  and  the  past 
of  the  other  leads  to  frequent  mistakes.  The  most  memorable 
example  of  impropriety  in  this  respect  is  found  in  Byron's 
famous  lines: 

"And  send'st  him  shivering  in  thy  playful  spray 
And  howling  to  his  gods,  where  haply  lies 
His  petty  hope  in  some  near  port  or  bay, 
And  dashest  him  again  to  earth;  there  let  him  lay." 

Here  we  see  both  the  right  and  the  wrong  use  of  the  same 
word. 

Sit  and  set  are  apt  to  be  confounded  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  as  lay  and  lie. 

Decompose — discompose. — A  foreigner  once  said,  speaking  of 
a  bashful  friend,  that  his  face  was  very  much  decomposed. 
Errors  of  this  kind,  purposely  made,  have  giv  en  rise  to  a  feeble 
sort  of  wit  called  malapropism. 

Loose — lose. — The  mistakes  that  occur  here  are  perhaps  gen- 
erally due  to  the  spelling,  as  these  words  are  seldom  or  never 
confounded  in  common  conversation. 

Sanitary — sanatory. — Sanitary  is  from  sanitas,  health;  sana- 
tory, from  sano,  to  heal.  The  former  is  subjective,  the  latter 
objective. 


38  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Predicate— predict. — Predicate  is  to  assert  one  thing  of  an- 
other; predict,  to  foretell  the  future. 

Ingenuous — ingenious. — The  former  suggests  frankness  and 
guilelessness;  the  latter  intellectual  skill  or  cleverness. 

§  26.  VAGUE    WORDS. 

Another  fault  arises  from  the  use  of  words  that  are  vague 
and  general,  instead  of  such  as  are  exact  and  definite.  This 
is  a  characteristic  of  those  who  think  loosely,  or  who  prepare 
their  subject-matter  carelessly,  and  are  as  destitute  of  distinct 
ideas  as  they  are  of  accurate  words  by  which  to  express  them. 
General  terms  are  always  more  convenient  than  special;  and 
to  make  use  of  any  one  at  random  will  save  trouble,  and  pre- 
vent the  difficulty  of  searching  after  one  which  may  be  more 
appropriate.  There  are  many  words  which  are  thus  made  use 
of,  and  a  few  of  these  may  serve  as  examples. 

.Affair. — This  word  is  made  to  do  duty  for  almost  anything 
— a  battle,  a  conversation,  a  convention,  a  revolution,  or  a  re- 
ligious revival. 

Circumstance  is  used  in  the  same  general  way. 

Considerable  is  a  favorite  word  with  writers  who  are  inaccu- 
rate <ibout  numbers;  but  it  is  also  applied  to  a  great  variety  of 
subjects,  as,  "a  person  of  considerable  influence,"  "a  town  of 
considerable  size,"  "attained  to  considerable  distinction." 

"  Remarkable,"  "  tolerable,"  "  several,"  "  person,"  "  party," 
"individual,"  are  other  examples.  "Thing"  is  a  word  of  ex- 
tended signification,  though  it  does  not  nearly  rival  its  German 
equivalent,  "ding;"  but  its  use  should  be  restricted,  and  other 
special  words  will  be  more  precise.  To  this  list  may  be  added 
a  larger  number  of  formulas,  phrases,  and  sentences  of  a  pure- 
ly conventional  character,  such  as  abound  in  sermons,  newspa- 
per articles,  third-rate  political  oratory,  but  above  all  in  so-called 
"complimentary  addresses."  These  are  perhaps  beyond  the 
pale  of  criticism,  since  precision  is  about  the  last  thing  that  is 
thought  of  by  those  who  compose  them. 

§  27.  VERBOSITY. 

By  verbosity  is  meant  an  excessive  use  of  words.  It  arises 
from  a  natural  gift  of  fluent  expression,  which  has  not  been 
sufficiently  chastened  and  corrected.     For  the  present  pur- 


Perspicuity  in  Words. — Precision.  39 

pose  it  will  be  necessary  to  consider  only  the  chief  ways  in 
which  verbosity  may  affect  precision. 

§  28.   TAUTOLOGY. 

1.  Tautology  arises  from  verbosity,  and  may  be  defined  as 
the  repetition  of  the  same  idea  in  ditferent  words.  It  must  be 
distinguished  from  the  faulty  use  of  synonymous  words.  The 
former  is  a  case  of  useless  repetition,  the  latter  of  different 
things  taken  for  the  same.  This  may  be  seen  in  the  familiar 
example  :  They  returned  back  again  to  the  same  place  from 
whence  they  came  forth;  which  is  reducible  to:  They  returned 
to  the  place  whence  they  departed. 

Dr.  Johnson,  from  his  habit  of  presenting  kindred  words  in 
pairs,  in  triplets,  and  in  many  varieties  of  similar  and  contrast- 
ed meaning,  often  falls  into  this  error.  In  the  following  pas- 
sage, speaking  of  the  style  of  Prior,  he  says ; 

"  He  had  often  infused  into  it  much  knowledge  and  much  thought ;  had 
often  polished  it  into  elegance,  often  dignified  it  into  splendor,  and  some- 
times heightened  it  to  sublimity ;  and  did  not  discover  that  it  wanted  the 
power  of  engaging  attention  and  alluring  curiosity." 

Although  it  is  certainly  possible  to  show  that  there  is  a  sep- 
arate meaning  to  every  one  of  these  words,  yet  it  is  evident 
that  the  real  distinction  is  but  slight,  and  they  are  equivalent 
to  so  many  tedious  repetitions  of  the  same  thing. 

A  biography  of  Dr.  Johnson  was  published  shortly  after  his 
death,  in  which  the  author  quoted  the  following  well-known 

couplet: 

"  Let  observation,  with  extensive  view, 
Survey  mankind  from  China  to  Peru;" 

which  he  maintained  was  equivalent  to  this:  Let  observation 
with  extensive  observation  observe  mankind  extensively. 

§  29.  CIRCUMLOCUTION. 

2.  Circumlocution  is  another  characteristic  of  verbosity.  It 
means  a  roundabout  mode  of  speech,  where,  instead  of  a  direct 
statement  of  meaning,  the  words  are  multiplied  to  an  unnec- 
essary extent.  When  properly  employed  this  is  a  recognized 
figure  of  speech  (periphrasis),  but  the  kind  now  under  consid- 
eration is  that  which  results  from  carelessness.     It  is  character- 


40  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

ized  by  the  tedious  accumulation  of  unnecessary  explanations 
or  unmeaning  definitions;  by  an  excessive  use  of  epithets;  and 
in  general  by  an  imposing  array  of  words  which  circle  about 
the  subject  without  tending  to  any  definite  conclusion. 

§  30.  VERBOSITY    IN    THE    PULPIT   AND   PRESS. 

Verbosity  is  a  fault  in  style  which  prevails  very  widely  at  the 
present  day,  on  account  of  the  existence  of  certain  departments 
of  literature  which  had  no  counterparts  in  ancient  times.  Of 
these  two  may  be  mentioned. 

1.  Pulpit  oratory. 

Since  the  Reformation,  the  rise  of  Protestantism  has  caused 
greater  importance  to  be  attached  to  the  sermon  than  ever 
before.  Every  Sunday,  and  even  oftener,  the  minister  must 
be  prepared  with  his  discourse,  which  has  to  fill  up  a  certain 
amount  of  time.  Now,  after  making  all  due  allowance  for  those 
earnest  preachers  who,  full  of  desire  to  benefit  the  souls  of  men, 
stand  forth  to  preach  with  sincere  feeling  the  word  of  eternal 
life,  there  must  remain  a  large  number  who  regard  this  as  an 
onerous  task,  and  fulfil  it  in  a  perfunctory  manner.  Hence 
the  words  sermon  and  sermonize  have  become  proverbial  for 
dulness  and  tediousness.  In  many  cases  this  necessity  of 
filling  up  the  time  makes  the  sermon  an  array  of  paraphrases 
and  circumlocutions,  which  would  not  for  a  moment  be  tolerated 
in  forensic  or  parliamentary  oratory. 

2.  The  modern  newspaper. 

Here  we  find  a  similar  cause  producing  similar  effects.  There 
is  the  regular  demand  for  a  certain  amount  of  writing  to  be 
furnished  at  a  given  time,  and  to  fill  a  given  space.  Deduct- 
ing those  who  do  their  task  well,  we  have  left  a  large  number 
who  are  merely  "  machine "  writers,  and  fill  up  the  allotted 
space  with  words  rather  than  ideas. 


Perspicuity  i?t  Words. — Purity.  41 


CHAPTER  IV. 
PERSPICUITY  IN  WORDS,  CONTINUED.— PURITY. 

§  31.   PURITY. 

By  purity  is  meant  the  employment  of  such  words  and 
idioms  as  are  sanctioned  by  the  best  contemporary  usage. 

In  order  to  write  pure  English,  it  is  necessary  to  avoid  the 
use  of  all  old  words  that  have  become  obsolete  ;  and  all  new 
words  that  are  strange  and  unfamiliar.  It  is  further  necessary 
that  there  be  no  departure  from  the  best  idiomatic  style  of 
expression. 

The  study  of  words  belongs  to  philology  rather  than  rhet- 
oric, but  a  brief  consideration  of  this  subject,  in  so  far  as  it 
relates  to  purity  of  style,  will  not  be  out  of  place  in  this 
work. 

§  32.  OBSOLETE   WORDS. 

In  the  history  of  a  language  great  changes  are  found  to  be 
constantly  occurring.  Authors  arise  who  develop  its  capa- 
bilities and  establish  a  standard  of  excellence.  But  language 
has  in  itself  a  growth  which  is  quite  independent  of  literature, 
and  it  soon  passes  beyond  the  usage  of  any  one  age.  Some 
words  cease  to  be  employed^andjthe  Author  of  one  period  be- 
comes oHsc^LiriTTcr  ihe  rekdeF  of  another.  Many  words  once 
familiar  become  unintelligible,  or  at  least  difficult  of  compre- 
hension. These  are  called  obsolete.  Of  these,  however,  many 
are  only  obsolete  in  common  conversation  or  in  ordinary -profi<>- 
TTTerature;  and  though  not  in  general  use,  they  are,  neverthe- 
less, understood  without  difficulty.  These  offer  important 
limitations  as  to  the  degree  to  which  words  become  obsolete. 
A  definition  of  the  term  may  be  given  as  follows :  Obsolete 
words  are  those  which  are  no  longer  used  in  good  prose  litera- 
ture or  in  common  conversation.  Of  such  the  following  may 
be  taken  as  examples  :  "  peradventure,"  "  anon,"  "  astonied," 
"erst,"   "hight,"   "cleped,"   "yclept,"  "whilom,"  "iwis"   or 


42  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

"I-wis,"  "erewhile,"  "ne,"  "list,"  "wist,*'  "wight,"  "twain," 
"eke,"  "yea,"  "verily." 

§  33.  OBSOLETE  TERMINATIONS   AND   MEANINGS. 

In  addition  to  this,  there  are  certain  terminations  of  words 
which  have  become  obsolete.  These  are  chiefly  in  "  en  "  and 
"  eth,"  the  one  being  an  old  form  of  the  plural,  and  the  other  a 
well-known  verbal  inflection.  Certain  compounds  of  the  pro- 
noun with  the  substantive  verb  may  also  be  considered  as 
obsolete  in  this  sense,  as,  "'tis,"  "'twas,"  "'twere."  Another 
class  may  be  found  in  words  which  have  changed  their  signifi- 
cation, in  which  case  it  is  the  meanings  and  not  the  words  that 
are  obsolete.  Thus  "admirable''  once  meant  "surprising;" 
"to  be  amused"  meant  "to  be  occupied;"  "brave"  meant 
"gaudy;"  "caitiff"," "captive;"  "chimney," "stove;"  "corpse," 
a  "  person  ;"  "  desire,"  "  regret ;"  "  equal,"  "  impartial ;"  "  ex- 
plode," "to  hiss  off";"  "generous,"  "high-born;"  "imp,"  a 
"scion"  (of  nobility) ;  " lively,"  " living ;"  "mediterranean," 
"  inland  ;"  "  novelist,"  an  "  innovator ;"  "  pomp,"  a  "  proces- 
sion ;"  "spice,"  a  "sort;"  "table,"  a  "picture;"  "wit,"  "in- 
telligence." 

§  34.  OBSOLETE   WORDS   USED   IN    RELIGIOUS    LITERATURE. 

Certain  important  limitations  are,  however,  to  be  observed 
on  this  subject,  for  in  some  departments  of  composition  words 
are  freely  admitted  which  are  obsolete  in  general  prose.  The 
first  of  these  departments  is  that  of  religious  literature,  which 
is  largely  modified  by  the  English  Bible.  This  is  essentially 
an  ancient  book.  It  has  gone  through  many  versions,  namely, 
those  of  Wycliffe,  Tyndale,  Coverdale,  the  Bishops'  Bible,  Cran- 
mer's,  and  that  of  King  James,  which  is  at  present  used.  Most 
of  these  were  revisions  of  preceding  editions,  rather  than  new 
translations,  and  retained  many  words  and  phrases  which  had 
been  used  before.  The  version  of  King  James  is  of  a  more 
antique  cast  than  the  prose  of  the  contemporary  writers  of  that 
age.  This  great  English  book  has  had  a  circulation  far  sur- 
passing that  of  any  work  ever  published  in  the  language ;  it 
has  served  as  a  perpetual  storehouse  for  allusion,  quotation, 
and  reference ;  and  its  most  ancient  forms  of  speech  are  as 
familiar  to  all  as  the  most  modern  colloquialisms.     Now  in  re- 


Perspicuity  in  Words. — Purity.  43 

ligious  works  of  all  kinds,  constant  reference  is  made  to  this 
English  Bible.  Its  words  are  not  only  quoted  directly,  but  are 
also  appropriated  and  incorporated  with  the  phraseology  of 
other  writers.  On  this  account  an  antique  character  pervades 
the  larger  portion  of  our  religious  literature,  and  words  are 
freely  used  here  which  on  no  account  would  find  admission 
into  a  magazine  article,  a  newspaper  editorial,  or  any  work  in 
general  prose  composition. 

Besides  the  English  Bible  there  is  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  whose  influence  over  language  and  literature  has  been 
of  a  similar  character.  The  tendency  to  make  use  of  obsolete 
words  in  religious  writing  is  seen  still  more  strikingly  in  the 
whole  vocabulary  of  prayer.  Deity  is  addressed  in  those  forms 
of  speech  which  the  associations  of  the  past,  the  usage  of  the 
English  Bible  and  Prayer-book,  and  the  phraseology  of  relig- 
ious writings  have  combined  to  invest  with  deep  solemnity  and 
venerable  antiquity. 

§   35.  OBSOLETE  WORDS   USED   IN   POETRY. 

An  exception  is  also  to  be  made  in  favor  of  poetry,  for  the 
free  use  of  obsolete  words  forms  part  of  what  is  called  poetic 
license. 

Poetry  requires  a  different  phraseology  from  prose,  a  lan- 
guage in  some  sort  of  its  own.  A  poetic  dialect  exists  in  all 
languages,  but  in  English  it  is  more  strongly  marked  and  more 
copious  than  in  any  other  ;  and,  among  other  peculiarities,  it  is 
distinguished  by  the  possession  and  use  of  many  of  those  words 
which  are  considered  obsolete  in  general  prose.  For  poetry 
requires  the  largest  possible  vocabulary,  it  strains  the  resources 
of  language  to  the  uttermost,  and  if  an  old  word  may  best  ex- 
press the  poet's  meaning,  it  is  made  use  of  without  hesitation. 
The  causes  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  general  characteristics 
of  poetry,  which  may  be  stated  as  follows  : 

1.  The  style  is  more  exalted.  Subjects  are  treated  of  which 
would  not  be  considered  at  all  in  any  other  way.  For  instance, 
prose  could  not  be  applied  to  such  themes  as  the  Divina  Com- 
media  or  the  Paradise  Lost. 

2.  The  thought  is  more  vivid  and  intense.  Lyrical  poetry 
has  a  high  impassioned  character  altogether  diverse  from  the 
nature  of  sober  prose,  and  its  effects  are  commensurate  with 

C 


44  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

that  character.     This  may  be  illustrated  by  a  literal  translation 
into  English  prose  of  such  a  poem  as  the  French  "  Marseilhiise." 

3.  The  exigencies  of  metre  demand  an  unlimited  supply  of 
words  in  order  to  make  the  verse  run  smoothly,  and  yet  secure 
the  highest  poetic  excellence  of  expression. 

4.  The  exigencies  of  rhyme  require  for  the  poet  the  same 
liberty. 

Thus  we  shall  find  that  the  very  words  which  are  not  allowa- 
ble in  general  prose  are  welcome  to  poetry,  and  this  may  be 
seen  from  the  following  examples  : 

'■^Whilom  in  Albion's  isle  there  dwelt  a  youth 
Who  ne  in  virtue's  ways  did  take  delight ; 
Ah  me  !  in  sooth  he  was  a  godless  7oight^ 
Childe  Harold  was  he  highty — Byron. 
"I  who  erewhtU  the  happy  garden  sang." — MrLT9N. 
"  Eagerly  I  loved  to  borrow  from  ray  books  surcease  of  sorrow." — PoE. 
".As  his  corse  to  the  ramparts  we  hurried." — Wolfe. 
**  iTvis  in  all  the  senate 
There  was  no  heart  so  bold." — Macaulay. 

The  use  of  obsolete  terminations  is  still  more  conspicuous 
in  poetry.  The  poets  discard  the  modern  terminations  in  the 
hissing  "  s,"  and  cling  to  the  musical  old  endings  in  "  en  "  and 
"eth  ;"  6r,  rather,  it  would  be  more  correct  to  say  that  they  use 
either  form  with  equal  liberty.  The  result  is,  however,  that  all 
the  beautiful  and  expressive  words  and  euphonious  endings  that 
have  ever  existed  in  the  language  are  cherished  by  the  poets ; 
and  so  it  has  been  said  that  those  forms  of  speech  which  have 
died  in  the  world  of  prose  go  up  to  live  forever  in  the  heaven 
of  poetry. 

§  36.  OBSOLETE   WORDS   USED   IN   CERTAIN    KINDS   OF    FICTION. 

Another  exception  is  to  be  noted  in  works  of  fiction,  where 
there  is  an  attempt  to  represent  an  earlier  period.  Here  the 
first  aim  is  verisimilitude,  and  the  writer  must  avail  himself  of 
everything  that  contributes  to  this.  To  imitate  the  language 
of  a  given  period  in  a  general  way  is  often  an  effectual  means 
of  securing  the  truth  of  resemblance  ;  and  hence  many  obso- 
lete words  make  their  appearance,  used  by  the  imaginary  char- 
acters of  the  age  to  which  they  belong.  The  old  words  and  the 
old  idioms  then  appear  with  good  effect.     Yet  even  here  these 


Perspicuity  in   Words, — Purity,  45 

words  must  be  used  correctly,  and  not  too  extensively.  The 
abuse  of  this  liberty  is  seen  in  the  inferior  order  of  so-called 
historical  novels, , where  the  writer,  undertaking  to  handle  a 
subject  to  which  he  is  unequal,  interlards  the  dialogue  of  his 
characters  with  obsolete  words  and  formulas  selected  at  ran- 
dom from  the  works  of  old  authors. 

§  37.   ARCHAISM. 

To  this  employment  of  obsolete  words  in  the  departments 
of  literature  above  mentioned  the  term  archaism  is  applied  ; 
and  this  may  be  defined  as  the  intentional  use  of  the  older 
words  and  terminations  of  a  language. 

§  38.   MANY   OBSOLETE   WORDS   RETURN    INTO   GENERAL   USE. 

The  use  of  obsolete  words  in  general  prose  literature  is  not 
of  common  occurrence,  nor,  when  it  happens,  is  it  to  be  con- 
sidered as  a  very  serious  offence.  It  is,  in  fact,  somewhat  diffi- 
cult to  say  what  words  are  really  obsolete,  and  what  are  not ; 
for  religious  literature  and  poetry  have  so  familiarized  old 
words  to  the  reader  that  they  are  seldom  obscure,  and  their 
employment  becomes  a  question  of  taste,  rather  than  of  per- 
spicuity or  of  grammatical  purity.  In  fact,  obsolete  words  are 
regarded  with  much  favor  by  many  of  the  best  writers  of  the 
present  day.  Increased  attention  to  the  study  of  early  English 
has  led  to  a  very  general  effort  to  revive  the  use  of  many  words. 
Accordingly  a  large  number  may  be  found  which  have  actually 
come  back  into  prose  literature  after  a  temporary  banishment. 
These  words  have  held  their  own  in  poetry  and  in  religious 
literature,  and  thus  have  easily  returned  to  general  prose. 
We  may  see  in  a  comparatively  recent  period  the  revival  of 
such  words  as  "benison,"  "malison,"  "outrance,"  "plea- 
saunce,"  "guerdon,"  and  others  of  a  like  nature.  Nor  is  this 
revival  confined  to  our  own  time,  although  it  is  certainly  more 
extensive  now  than  ever  before.  Obsolete  words  have  been 
introduced  in  former  periods,  as  may  be  seen  from  a  few  brief 
statements. 

In  Spenser's  day  objections  were  made  to  such  words  as 
"dapper,"  "scathe,"  "askance,"  "embellish,"  "forestall," 
"  fain,"  and  others  which  soon  came  into  general  use. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  following  words  of  Chaucer 


46  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

were  considered  obsolete  :  "  anthem,"  "  carve,"  "  blithe," 
"bland,"  "franchise,"  "sphere,"  "transcend."  About  the 
same  time  other  words  were  called  obsolete  ;  as  "  strath," 
"landlouper,"  "yelp,"  "thrill,"  "dovetail,"  "kirtle,"  "grisly," 
"  ledge,"  "  trenchant,"  "  tissue,"  "  plumage,"  "  resource,"  "  vic- 
inage," "  tapestry,"  "  villainy."  All  these,  and  many  others 
like  them,  though  once  rejected  by  critics,  are  indispensable  to 
prose  literature  at  the  present  day. 

As  a  general  thing  the  restoration  of  a  word  to  current  prose 
literature  is  now  regarded  as  a  matter  for  gratification  rather 
than  objection.  It  often  happens  that  such  a  word  actually 
expresses  the  writer's  idea  in  the  best  possible  manner  ;  and 
under  such  circumstances  perspicuity  itself  might  seem  to  de- 
mand its  use.  Such  a  writer  as  Carlyle,  for  instance,  does  not 
hesitate  for  a  moment  about  using  an  obsolete  word  if  it  hap- 
pens to  express  his  meaning  better  than  others  that  are  in  more 
familiar  use.  The  faulty  use  of  obsolete  words  is  where  they 
are  really  obscure,  or  where  their  introduction  may  savor  of 
affectation  or  pedantry  on  the  part  of  the  writer. 

§  39.    NEW   WORDS. 

We  have  next  to  consider  the  introduction  of  n6w  words. 
Among  the  Greeks  this  was  stigmatized  as  a  barbarism  ;  but 
the  English  language  is  less  exclusive.  - 

Language  is  a  living  thing,  and  has  a  life  of  its  own.  It  is 
born  ;  it  grows  ;  it  flourishes  ;  it  languishes  ;  and  it  dies.  Its 
life  resembles  that  of  man,  both  as  an  individual  and  in  com- 
munities; and  is  characterized  by  innumerable  vicissitudes.  In 
connection  with  this  subject,  it  will  be  useless  to  talk  vaguely 
of  the  importance  of  purity  ;  to  denounce  all  words  that  may 
not  please ;  or  to  insist  on  the  rejection  of  all  that  may  not 
have  already  gained  a  place  in  the  language.  The  class  of 
new  words  will  always  be  a  large  one,  so  long  as  the  language 
itself  has  any  vitality. 

§   40.    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE    HAS     ABSORBED     NEW    WORDS 
INTO    ITSELF    IN    EVERY   AGE,  IN    SPITE   OF   OBJECTIONS. 

If  we  look  back  upon  the  history  of  the  English  language, 
we  find  it  exhibiting  a  moi;^  varied  growth  than  any  other.  It 
has  passed  through  several  distinct  periods  :  the  Anglo-Saxon, 


Perspicuity  in  Words. — Purity.  47 

the  Semi-Saxon,  the  Old  English,  the  Middle  English,  and  the 
Modern  English  ;  and  in  each  of  these  it  has  had  remarkable 
features.  Ever  since  the  Norman  Conquest  it  has  shown  a 
singular  capacity  for  absorbing  new  words  into  itself.  In  the 
latest  period,  when  it  stands  fully  formed  before  us,  we  find 
this  tendency  as  strong  as  ever  ;  and  we  have  to  regard  it  as 
a  leading  characteristic.  Inventions  and  discoveries  are  con- 
stantly being  made  which  require  new  forms  of  expression. 
Science  makes  the  same  demand,  which  is  repeated  by  learn- 
ing, philosophy,  art,  commerce,  and  other  great  movements 
among  mankind.  While  in  every  age  there  has  been  a  throng 
of  new  words  pressing  in  upon  the  language,  there  has  also  been 
in  every  age  an  outcry  raised  against  them.  This  outcry,  how- 
ever, has  been  of  little  avail  ;  and  the  history  of  the  past  shows 
us  many  such  words  which  once  were  objected  to,  but  which,  in 
spite  of  objections,  have  prevailed,  and  are  now  in  general  use. 
In  1534  Sir  Thomas  Elyot  mentioned  "  frugality,"  "  temper- 
ance," "  sobriety,"  and  "  magnanimity  "  as  modern  words.  In 
1589  Puttenham  called  the  following  modern  inventions : 
"function,"  "numerous,"  "penetrate,"  "indignity,"  "savage," 
"scientific,"  "dimension,"  "idiom,"  " compendious,"  "  prolix," 
"figurative,"  "impressive,"  "  metriral,"  "inveigle."  In  1601 
Philemond  Holland  gave  the  same  character  to' the  following  : 
"  acrimony,"  "  austere,"  "  bulk,"  "  consolidate,"  "  debility," 
"  dose,"  "  aperient,"  "  opiate,"  "  propitious,"  "  symptom."  Ba- 
con did  not  know  "encyclopaedia,"  but  used  "circle  learning." 
Shakespeare,  in  Twelfth  Night,  alluded  to  "element"  as  new; 
and  Wotton  spoke  of  "  characters  "  as  a  recent  acquisition. 
Fulke,  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  objected  to 
scandal,"  "neophyte,"  "despicable,"  "de- 
."  Thomas  Fuller  stated  that  "plunder  " 
was  imported  from  Germany,  where  it  originated  during  the 
Thirty- Years'  War.  "Malignant,"  "cavalier,"  "Roundhead," 
and  "  selfish  "  arose  during  the  Parliamentary  War.  "  Pathos  " 
arose  a  little  later  ;  as  did  also  "  mob."  In  1658  the  follow- 
ing were  objected  to  in  Heylin's  Observations  on  L'Estrange's 
History  of  Charles  11. :  "  adoption,"  "  abstruse,"  "amphibious," 
"  articulate,"  "  adventitious,"  "  complicated,"  "  compensate," 
"concede,"  "caress,"  "destination,"  "horizontal,"  "oblique," 
:**  ocular,"  "  radiant."    "  Dragonnade  "  and  "  refugee  "  came  into 


48  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

use  during  the  age  of  Louis  XIV.  In  1670  Dryden  objected 
to  "good  graces,"  "repartee,"  "embarrass,"  "grimace,"  "cha- 
grin." "  Suicide  "  was  condemned  at  about  the  same  time.  In 
Skinner's  Etymologicon,  1688,  "cajole,"  and  "sentiment" 
were  called  new.  Johnson  was  blamed  for  using  "resuscita- 
tion," "narcotic,"  "fatuity,"  "germination."  "  Sans-culotte," 
"guillotine,"  and  "  terrorism  "  arose  during  the  French  Revolu- 
tion ;  and  hosts  of  new  words  have  been  coming  into  the  lan- 
guage ever  since. 

§  41.    SOURCES   OF   NEW  WORDS. 

The  sources  from  which  new  words  are  derived  are  numer- 
ous, and  may  be  set  down  as  follows  : 

1.  Science  and  Learning. — Science  is  continually  enlarging  its 
sphere.  The  old  sciences  are  widening  their  scope  and  increas- 
ing their  action ;  while,  in  addition  to  these,  new  ones  arise  which 
rival  the  old  in  importance.  Geology,  Mineralogy,  Compara- 
tive Philology,  and  many  others,  have  arisen  in  this  age ;  and 
all  these  require  a  nomenclature  of  their  own.  The  names 
which  are  thus  required  are  generally  made  up  from  Greek  or 
Latin  roots.  All  the  natural  sciences  have  created  new  words 
of  this  sort,  which  are  intelligible  to  the  students  throughout 
Christendom.  With  technical  terms,  literature  has  not  much 
to  do ;  but  some  of  them  pass  into  literary  use,  and  of  these 
the  following  may  serve  as  examples :  "  encyclopaedia,"  "  meth- 
od," "  function,"  "  nomenclature,"  "  horizontal,"  "  oblique," 
"objective,"  "subjective,"  "aesthetic,"  " ethicj"  " ethnic,"  " iso- 
thermal," "telegraphy,"  "statistics,"  "myth,"  "cult,"  "mag- 
netism." 

2.  Invention. — As  this  is  pre-eminently  the  age  of  invention, 
the  field  here  is  very  wide,  and  new  words  come  in  from  this 
source  by  the  hundred.  Of  these  many  must  perish,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  many  survive.  A  large  number  are  made  up 
from  Greek  roots,  some  from  Latin.  The  following  are  exam- 
ples :  "telescope,"  "microscope,"  "chronometer,"  "telegraph," 
"  photograph,"  "  stereoscope,"  "  micrometer,"  "  aeronaut," 
"  velocipede,"  "  bicycle,"  "  elevator,"  "  locomotive." 

3.  Discovery.  —  Some  discoveries  are  made  in  science  by 
which  words  arise  that  are  generally  of  Greek  or  Latin  origin, 
as  "  hydrogen,"  "  oxygen,"  "gravitation."    Others  refer  to  the 


Perspicuity  in  Words. — Purity,  49 

vegetable  world,  and  are  illustrated  by  "  tea,"  "  coffee,"  "  tobac- 
co," "  cocoa,"  "  opium,"  "  potato." 

4.  Art. — A  large  number  of  words  in  common  use  have  been 
derived  from  this  source.  For  example,  in  architecture  we 
have  "  dome,"  "  piazza,"  "  veranda  ;"  from  painting,  "  tone," 
"fresco,"  "ultramarine;"  from  sculpture, "  bust,"  "  torso,"  "  bas- 
relief;"  from  engraving,  "mezzotint,"  "lithograph,"  "chromo- 
lithograph ;"  from  music,  "  opera,"  "  oratorio,"  "  prima  donna  ;" 
besides  which  are  many  words  belonging  to  other  departments 
of  art,  such  as  "  mosaic,"  "cameo,"  "  intaglio,"  "  filigree,"  etc. 

5.  Fashion. — Here  the  words  are  innumerable,  but  the  most 
of  them  are  shortlived,  and  few,  indeed,  are  those  which  endure. 
"  Surtout,"  "paletot,"  and  "galoches,"  once  in  general  use,  are 
now  obsolete  ;  but  permanent  words  from  this  source  may  be 
illustrated  by  "  tunic,"  "muslin,"  "  calico,"  etc. 

6.  National  Afovettients. — These  include  wars,  revolutions,  and 
other  popular  commotions.  The  words  derived  from  these  are 
numerous,  and  are  illustrated  by  "  Puritan,"  "  Roundhead," 
"Whig,"  "Tory,"  "cabal,"  "clique,"  "caucus,"  "coup-d'^tat." 

7.  Foreigti  Intercourse. — From  this  source  we  have  many  for- 
eign words  which  have  become  naturalized,  as  "shah,"  "czar," 
"sultan,"  "  pacha;"  "drosky,"  "  kayak,"  "canoe ;"  "  sombrero," 
"  poncho ;"  "  stiletto,"  "  creese ;"  "  mustang,"  "  barbe ;"  "  taboo," 
"  tattoo,"  etc. 

8.  Colonizing  Movements. — The  English  race,  in  extending  it- 
self over  all  parts  of  the  world,  has  developed  new  modes  of 
life,  and  with  these  new  words  have  sprung  up.  California  and 
Australia  have  contributed  many  which  have  come  into  general 
use;  for  example,  "diggings,"  "prospect,"  "lead,"  "cradle," 
"  ranch,"  "  bush,"  "  bushwhacker." 

9.  Americanisms. — The  rapid  growth  of  the  American  nation 
has  been  characterized  by  the  utmost  activity  of  intellect,  and 
multitudes  of  words  have  arisen  which  were  before  unknown. 
Such  as  are  peculiarly  American  may  be  illustrated  by  "  sen- 
sation," "  medium,"  "  spirit-rapping,"  "  camp-meeting,"  "  barbe- 
cue,*^ "  baggage,"  "  barrens,"  "  bobolink,"  "  buncombe,"  "clap- 
board," "  dime,"  "  stump-^p,eech,"  etc. 

10.  Orientalisms. — The  British  empire  in  the  East,  the  great 
missionary  operations  of  England  and  America,  and  the  spread 
of  commerce  and  travel,  have  brought  many  words  into  the 


50  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

language  from  the  whole   of  Asia,  as  "  bungalow,"  "  moon- 
shee,"  "  pundit,"  "  fakir,"  "  bonze,"  "  santon,"  "  dervish." 

LI.  New  Ideas. — The  progress  of  civilization  tends  to  create 
new  sensations  and  new  ideas,  for  which  names  must  be  found. 
Thus  the  French  were  the  first  to  devise  a  word  for  the  sensa- 
tion of  tedium,  which  they  called  "ennui."  The  English  have 
applied  to  this  the  name  "  bore."  This  class  of  words  may  be 
illustrated  by  "prestige,"  "coincidence,"  "amateur,"  "connois- 
seur," "  pluck,"  "  push,"  "  bounce." 

12.  New  Verbs. — These  are  formed  from  nouns  already  in 
use ;  as,  "  to  telegraph,"  "  to  coal  "  or  "  coal  up,"  "  to  steam 
away,"  "  to  switch  off." 

13.  Names  of  Men. — New  words  are  formed  from  the  names 
of  men  in  cases  of  discovery  or  invention.  Such  are  found  in 
"galvanism,"  "voltaic"  pile,  "guillotine,"  "bowie"  knife^^" mac- 
adamize." Others  are  formed  from  the  names  ofmose  who 
have  promulgated  new  doctrines,  or  headed  movements  among 
men,as"Wesleyan,"  "Garibaldian,"  "Benthamite,"  "Comptist," 
"  Millerism."  Others  are  formed  from  the  qualities  of  men,  as 
"  Platonic,"  "  Miltonic,"  "  Napoleonic." 

14.  Slang. — From  this  source,  also,  many  words  are  derived. 
Originating  no  one  knows  how,  perhaps  in  the  most  disreputable 
way,  they  evince  a  native  force  and  expressive  energy  which 
compel  reception.  Of  this  sort  are  the  following :  "  mob," 
"humbug,"  "quiz,"  "chaff;"  "hoax,"  "beau,"  "dandy,"  "fop," 
"  swell,"  "  Bohemian,"  "  prig,"  "  cad,"  "  bumptious." ' 

New  words  are  furnished  to  the  English  by  many  different 
languages,  and  if  we  compare  these,  we  shall  find  that  several 
have  supplied  distinct  classes.  Thus  Greek  and  Latin  con- 
tribute those  which  relate  to  science  and  learning,  invention 
and  discovery  ;  French,  those  which  refer  to  fashion,  cookery, 
and  warfare ;  Italian,  those  which  belong  to  art ;  Hebrew  has 
contributed  some  which  belong  to  the  vocabularj'  of  religion, 
and  a  large  number  of  proper  names  in  general  use. 

§  42.    THE   GROWTH    OF    NEW   WORDS    IS    RAPID. 

The  growth  of  new  words  is  very  rapid.  What  is  a  barbar- 
ism in  one  age  is  a  standard  word  in  the  next.  Examples  of 
this  may  be  found  in  "connoisseur," "reconnoitre,"  "verbiage," 
"gasconade,"  " rhodomontade,"  which  were  all  objected  to  by 


Perspicuity  in  Words. — Purity.  51 

Dr.  Campbell  in   his    Philosophy   of  Rhetoric,  yet  since  his 
time  have  become  thoroughly  naturalized. 

§  43.    THE   OBJECTIONABLE   USE  OF    NEW   WORDS. — PROPER 
AUTHORITY    DEFINED. 

New  words  are  objectionable  when  they  are  employed  with- 
out proper  authority. 

'i'his  term  "  authority  "  has  given  rise  to  such  frequent  mis- 
apprehension that  it  may  be  well  to  explain  its  true  significa- 
tion.    It  may  be  defined  in  a  twofold  way. 

1.  It  is  the  usage  of  a  writer  of  commanding  genius  and  in- 
fluence. Thus  Shakespeare,  Addison,  and  Johnson  intro- 
duced new  words,  to  which  their  names  afterwards  gave  a  sanc- 
tion. In  our  own  day  Carlyle,  Coleridge,  Tennyson,  and 
Browning  have  introduced  or  given  currency  to  new  words, 
and  made  strange  ones  familiar. 

2.  It  is  the  sanction  of  the  literary  world  of  any  given  period; 
and  at  the  present  day  may  be  defined  as  the  usage  of  the 
leading  periodicals.  From  this  source  have  been  derived  such 
words  as  "  telegram,"  "  bicycle,"  "  unwisdom,"  and  many  others 
which  have  held  their  ground  in  spite  of  strenuous  opposition. 

Generally  new  words  come  in  to  supply  a  real  want.  No 
one  knows  who  uses  them  first.  If  they  are  really  needed  they 
are  welcomed  by  the  world  of  literary  men,  and  thus  take  a 
permanent  place.  But  if  a  word  present  itself  without  the 
sanction  of  supreme  genius,  or  the  consent  of  the  world  of  let- 
ters, then  it  may  properly  be  rejected  as  a  barbarism. 

§  44.    THE    FAULTY   USE   OF   NEW   WORDS. 

Such  objectionable  words  are  derived  from  various  sources. 

1.  Some  originate  in  our  own  language,  and  of  these  the 
following  are  examples:  "  happify,"  "  gasalier,"  "unuseful," 
"  charmfulness."  The  verb  "  to  interview "  was  at  first  ac- 
cepted in  jest,  then  violently  denounced,  and  finally,  by  a 
strange  fate,  it  appears  to  be  accepted  with  mournful  resigna- 
tion, and  may  actually  take  a  permanent  place. 

2.  Many  words  are  taken  from  the  French  language,  and 
abound  in  fashionable  novels  and  in  newspapers.  "  Politesse," 
"  delicatesse,"  "hauteur,"  "dernier-resort,"  "exposition,"  for 
"  exhibition,"  are  examples  of  constant  occurrence.    The  word 

C  2 


52  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

"  solidarity  "  appears  to  be  winning  its  way  in  spite  of  opposi- 
tion ;  and  so  does  "  plebiscite,"  simply  because  they  express 
ideas  for  which  there  are  no  exact  English  equivalents.  The 
excessive  use  of  words  of  this  sort  has  been  parodied  in  the 
following  passage :  "  The  ball  was  most  recherche.  Madame 
presented  an  appearance  that  was  distingue  in  the  extreme. 
The  toilettes  oi  les  jenties  dames  were  ravissantes.  On  entering 
the  room  the  coup-d'oeil  was  magnifique^  and  the  tout-ensemble 
could  not  be  surpassed." 

3.  The  Italian  language,  also,  affords  words  of  this  sort. 
These  are  chiefly  to  be  found  in  writings  which  refer  to  art, 
particularly  music.  When  they  are  used  in  a  purely  techni- 
cal sense  no  objection  can  be  made  ;  the  fault  is  when  they 
are  introduced  into  general  literature.  To  intermingle  with 
one's  English  such  words  as  "maestro,"  "impresario,"  "fiasco," 
is  as  bad  a  piece  of  affectation  and  as  reprehensible  a  vice  as 
the  one  just  mentioned.  Those  writers  who  know  and  love  the 
English  language  find  it  all-sufficient.  Those  who  really  un- 
derstand Italian  and  French  are  not  apt  to  indulge  in  such  idle 
display.  It  is  rather  the  characteristic  of  those  who  have  but 
a  slight  acquaintance  with  these  languages,  and  are  anxious  to 
make  known  to  the  world  all  the  little  that  they  know. 

4.  Many  are  derived  from  the  Latin,  and  are  introduced 
through  a  pedantic  taste,  or  the  desire  for  a  cheap  display  of 
learning.  Examples  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  following 
words:  "centrical"  for  "central,"  "envisaging"  for  "view- 
ing," "resuming"  for  "summing  up."  The  word  "donate," 
for  "give,"  is  bad;  but  not  worse  than  "locate"  for  "live." 
"Effectuate"  and  "eventuate"  are  in  bad  taste  and  preten- 
tious. "  Collide  "  is  a  word  which  has  fought  its  way  into  re- 
spectable use.  "  Sororize,"  as  the  counterpart  of  "  fraternize," 
and  "  viatricide,"  as  a  name  for  death  by  railway  accident,  seem 
to  have  been  made  up  in  jest.  "  Governmental "  and  "  pessi- 
mistic "  are  both  as  bad  as  they  can  be. 

5.  Oriental  words.  These  are  very  common,  on  account  of 
the  increasing  connection  with  the  East,  through  commerce, 
politics,  travel,  missionary  effort,  and  the  like.  Many  Oriental 
words  have  come  into  established  use,  but  many  more  must  be 
condemned.  The  excessive  employment  of  these  has  been 
ridiculed  in  the  following  passage,  which  may  serve  to  illustrate 


Perspicuity  in   Words. — Purity.  53 

this  sort  of  barbarism  :  "  While  seated  in  the  bungalow^  waiting 
for  the /f7/^//^«///,  there  arose  a  sudden  outcry  from  the  Tatmut- 
gars,  followed  by  rapid  drum-beats.  We  started  up,  but  the 
moonshee,  noticing  our  agitation,  said,*  Don't  be  alarmed,  Sahiby 
it's  only  the  Gooroos  with  their  tomtoms''' 

§  45.    NEW   COMPOUND   WORDS. 

In  addition  to  those  words  which  are  absolutely  new,  there 
is  another  class  made  up  of  old  words  already  existing,  but  pre- 
sented as  compounds. 

Two  classes  of  compound  words  are  here  to  be  observed. 
First,  those  of  foreign  derivation.  To  this  class  belong  those 
which  are  derived  from  Greek  or  Latin  sources,  and  are  lised 
for  scientific  or  other  purposes.  These,  however,  come  into 
the  language  already  compounded,  and  therefore  belong  to 
the  new  words  already  mentioned.  The  point  now  under  dis- 
cussion refers  to  a  second  class,  namely,  those  new  compounds 
which  are  made  up  of  words  already  existing  in  the  English 
language. 

The  growth  of  language  arises  chiefly  from  two  causes :  first, 
tropes,  by  which  concrete  terms  are  turned  from  a  literal  to  a 
figurative  meaning;  and,  secondly,  composition,  by  which  words 
already  existing  are  compounded,  and  thus  formed  into  a  new 
term.  All  languages  in  their  early  stages  have  this  power  of 
composition,  and  a  large  number  of  words  in  every  language 
are  compounds. 

The  English  language  has  less  power  of  composition  than 
any  other  of  the  Teutonic  family.  The  Latin  was  very  defi- 
cient in  this  respect,  and  the  languages  which  have  been  derived 
from  it  show  the  same  peculiarity.  The  Greek,  on  the  other 
hand,  had  a  great  capability  for  this,  which  belongs  in  an 
equal  degree  to  the  modern  German.  The  Anglo-Saxon  had 
the  same  capacity;  but  in  the  Early  English  period  it  had  be- 
come weakened  if  not  lost,  and  the  decay  of  this  power  in  our 
language  is  chiefly  due  to  the  influence  of  the  Norman  French. 

When  we  consider  the  newly  compounded  words  of  the 
present  day,  we  find  that  their  source  is  chiefly  in  science  and 
invention.  Leaving  aside  Greek  and  Latin  compounds  for  rea- 
sons already  mentioned,  let  us  consider  those  of  English  origin. 

I.  Science  and  Learning. — In  these  departments  we  have  such 


54  Elements  of  RJutoric. 

words  as  "  stone-period,"  "  flint-folk,"  "  bronze-folk,"  "  mound- 
builders,"  "  folk-lore,"  "  hand-book." 

2.  Invention. — "Steamboat,"  "railroad,"  "diving-bell,"  "sew- 
ing-machine," "tramway,"  "gun-cotton,"  "iron -clad,"  "gas- 
pipe." 

3.  Discovery. — "  India-rubber,"  "  soapstone,"  "  gum-tree." 

4.  The  movement  called  "Spiritualism"  has  given  rise  to 
many  words,  such  as  "  table-tipping,"  "  spirit-rapping,"  etc. 

§  46.  FAULTS    IN  THE   USE   OF    NEW   COMPOUND   WORDS. 

The  genius  of  the  English  language  is  so  alien  to  the  forma- 
tion of  compound  words  that  faults  are  not  as  frequent  here  as 
elsewhere.  The  influence  of  other  languages  in  the  introduction 
of  new  words  has  already  been  noticed.  Greek,  Latin,  French, 
and  Italian  furnish  a  large  supply;  but  upon  the  class  of  words 
now  under  consideration  these  languages  have  no  influence. 
The  Greek  and  Latin  give  us  words  already  compounded,  but 
they  do  not  cause  the  English  language  to  make  new  com- 
pounds out  of  words  already  in  use.  Another  language  has 
some  influence  in  this  respect,  and  that  is  the  German.  This 
is  due  to  several  causes. 

1.  The  German  has  a  power  of  composition  not  equalled  by 
any  other  of  the  great  modern  languages. 

2.  German  philosophy  has  a  commanding  position,  and  is 
illustrated  by  several  schools,  each  of  which  has  its  own  nomen- 
clature made  up  out  of  German  words;  and  English  thinkers 
who  discuss  philosophical  subjects  are  often  forced  to  transfer 
German  compounds  to  their  own  language. 

3.  These  words  in  many  cases  have  roots  which  exist  in  Eng- 
lish also. 

In  the  case  of  scientific  writing  every  liberty  must  be  allow- 
ed ;  and  as  the  botanist  may  freely  make  use  of  Greek  words, 
so  the  metaphysician  may  employ  German.  But  in  general 
literature  the  case  is  different,  and  English  imitations  of  Ger- 
man compounds  are  to  be  condemned. 

These  may  be  illustrated  by  such  terms  as  the  following: 
"Word-building,"  "time-spirit,"  "nature-spirit,"  "earth-soul," 
"woman-nature,"  "world-idea,"  "hero-saint,"  "art-show," 
"soul-life,"  "wonder-smith,"  "life-pleasure,"  "youth-season." 

Another  class  of  objectionable  compounds  may  be  found  in 


Perspicuity  in  Words. — Purity.  55 

cases  where  a  noun  is  turned  into  a  verb,  as  "  the  population 
had  fivefolded."  Here  the  word  fivefold  is  transformed  into 
another  part  of  speech.  We  may  say  "  the  population  had 
doubled"  or  "tripled,"  but  not  "fourfolded"  or  "fivefolded." 
These  last  resemble  such  expressions  as  "to  dress-make,"  "to 
shoe-make,"  "  to  ship-build,"  which  are  sometimes  used  in  jest, 
but  never  in  earnest. 

§  47.    CONCLUDING   REMARKS. 

In  concluding  this  subject,  we  may  notice  several  important 
truths. 

1.  Obsolete  words  in  certain  branches  of  literature  are  al- 
lowable, and  even  in  general  prose  they  are  not  so  unwelcome 
now  as  formerly,  but  may  be  used  under  certain  restrictions. 

2.  New  words  are  incessantly  coming  forward,  and  much 
discrimination  is  needed  in  order  to  decide  what  are  and  what 
are  not  offences  against  purity  of  style. 

3.  Compound  words,  though  far  less  numerous,  stand  in  the 
same  position  as  new  words. 

4.  In  every  age  grammarians  and  rhetoricians  have  de- 
nounced words,  which  have  come  into  use  in  spite  of  them. 

5.  In  view  of  these  facts,  the  best  course  to  be  taken  by  one 
who  seeks  to  preserve  purity  of  style  is  to  maintain  a  judicious 
conservatism.     This  is  best  stated  in  the  lines  of  Pope  : 

"  In  words  as  fashions  the  same  rule  doth  hold, 
Alike  fantastic  if  too  new  or  old ; 
Be  not  the  first  by  whom  the  new  is  tried, 
Nor  yet  the  last  to  lay  the  old  aside." 

§  48.    PURITY   ALSO    REQUIRES    CONFORMITY   TO    GRAMMAR  AND 

IDIOM. 

In  order  to  write  pure  English,  it  is  further  necessary  that 
there  be  no  departure  from  those  forms  of  speech  which  are 
established  by  the  laws  of  grammar  or  sanctioned  by  the  best 
idiomatic  usage.  The  violation  of  either  of  these  is  called  a 
solecism.  This  word  is  of  Greek  origin,  and  is  said  to  have 
arisen  from  the  corruption  of  the  Attic  dialect  among  the 
Athenian  colonists  of  Soloe,  a  town  in  Cilicia. 

The  solecism  includes  all  violations  of  good  usage,  all  those 
faults  in  speech  commonly  called  "  bad  grammar."     It  is  not 


56  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

necessary  to  dwell  upon  the  importance  of  grammatical  correct- 
ness in  style.  It  must  be  evident  that  pure  English  consists  in 
something  more  than  well-chosen  words ;  and  that  these  words, 
when  connected  together  in  phrases,  must  accord  with  the 
standard  which  has  been  established  by  the  best  authority^ 
English  grammar  requires  far  more  attention  than  it  usually 
receives  from  the  literary  man.  It  may  not  be  so  logical  or  so 
symmetrical  as  that  of  the  classical  languages,  and  there  may 
be  not  a  few  points  about  which  professed  grammarians  differ; 
yet  it  may  be  affirmed  that  this  very  looseness  and  comparative 
lawlessness  arises  from  the  world  -  wide  comprehensiveness 
which  distinguishes  it,  and  it  should  incite  every  writer  to  mas- 
ter whatever  difficulties  there  may  be.  — 
The  solecism  is  a  subject  that  belongs  to  grammar,  and  not 
to  rhetoric,  and  all  violations  of  the  rules  of  syntax  may  be 
found  fully  discussed  in  the  works  of  Latham,  Fowler,  Angus, 
and  others. 


CHAPTER  V. 
PERSPICUITY  IN  SENTENCES. 


§  49.    PERIODIC   AND   SIMPLE   STRUCTURE. 

Perspicuity  depends  not  only  upon  the  choice  of  words,  but 
also  upon  their  arrangement. 

Sentences,  in  their  various  divisions  of  simple,  complex,  and 
compound,  naturally  fall  into  two  great  classes — long  and  short ; 
and  these  produce  such  an  effect  upon  the  manner  of  compo- 
sition that  style  itself  has  been  classified  upon  this  basis. 
Where  the  writing  is  chiefly  characterized  by  long  sentences, 
it  has  been  called  '' style  periodique,''  and  also  '' style  soutenu ;" 
where  short  sentences  abound,  it  has  been  called  ''style  coupL" 
These  words,  however,  have  not  yet  been  naturalized  in  our 
language,  and  the  terms  "periodic  structure"  and  "simple 
structure  "  are  for  various  reasons  preferable.  Of  the  two,  the 
simple  structure  is  the  more  conducive  to  perspicuity,  for  where 
the  sentences  are  long  great  care  is  needed  that  the  clauses  be 
kept  in  their  proper  order  and  relation  ;  that  the  leading  subject 


Perspicuity  in  Sentences.  '5J' 

be  retained  prominently  before  the  mind ;  and  that  too  many 
things  be" not  crowded  together.  In  short  sentences  the  diffi- 
culties are  not  so  great ;  and  although  they  have  their  own 
faults,  yet  obscurity  is  by  no  means  one  of  them. 

French  prose  literature  is  considered  by  competent  critics 
as  superior  to  all  others  in  perspicuity,  and  it  is  a  significant 
fact  that  the  simple  structure  prevails  there  to  a  greater  extent 
than  elsewhere.  The  French  writer  aims  in  the  first  place  to 
make  his  meaning  clear,  and  seems  to  feel  instinctively  that 
this  aim  may  be  best  secured  by  the  short  sentence.  On  the 
other  hand,  that  of  Germany  is  distinguished  by  its  lack  both  of 
brilliancy  and  perspicuity ;  while  at  the  same  time  it  is  marked 
by  the  frequent  recurrence  of  long,  clumsy,  and  unwieldy  pe- 
riods. German  prose  literature  has  produced  no  group  of  great 
writers  like  those  of  Rome,  France,  and  England  ;  and  its  chief 
fault  lies  in  the  persistent  choice  and  careless  treatment  of  long 
sentences.  The  genius  of  the  language  commends  the  periodic 
structure  to  the  German  writer,  but  this  is  no  excuse  for  the 
awkward  manipulation  of  words. 

In  English  prose  there  are  abundant  examples  of  both  styles. 
The  long  sentence  characterizes  the  writings  of  Hooker,  Milton, 
Johnson,  Gibbon,  and  De  Quincey,  while  the  short  sentence  is 
the  chief  feature  in  Bacon's  Essays,  and  in  the  works  of  Addi- 
son, Sterne,  Lamb,  and  Macaulay. 

This  subject  is  well  presented  by  De  Quincey  in  the  follow- 
ing passage : 

"  In  French  authors,  whatever  may  otherwise  be  the  differences  of  their 
minds  or  the  differences  of  their  themes,  uniformly  we  find  the  periods  short, 
rapid,  unelaborate.  Pascal  or  Helvetius,  Condillac  or  Rousseau,  Montes- 
quieu or  Voltaire,  Buffon  or  Duclos — all  alike  are  terse,  perspicuous,  brief. 
Even  Mirabeau  or  Chateaubriand,  so  much  modified  by  foreign  intercourse, 
on  this  point  adhere  to  their  national  models.  Even  Bossuet  or  Bourda- 
loue,  where  the  diffuseness  and  amplitude  of  oratory  might  have  been  plead- 
ed as  a  dispensation,  are  not  more  licentious  in  this  respect  than  their  com- 
patriots. One  rise  in  every  sentence,  one  gentle  descent — that  is  the  law  for 
French  composition,  even  too  monotonously  so ;  and  thus  it  happens  that 
such  a  thing  as  a  long,  involved  sentence  could  not  be  produced  from  French 
literature,  though  a  sultan  were  to  offer  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  the  man 
who  should  find  it. 

"The  character  of  German  prose  is  an  object  of  legitimate  astonishment. 
Whatever  is  bad  in  our  o^vn  ideal  of  prose  style,  whatever  is  most  repulsive 
in  our  own  practice,  we  see  there  carried  to  the  most  outrageous  excesa 


•58  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Lessing,  Herder,  Richter,  and  Lichtenberg,  with  some  few  beside,  either 
prompted  by  nature  or  trained  upon  foreign  models,  have  avoided  the  be- 
setting sin  of  German  prose.  .  .  .  Among  ten  thousand  offenders  we  would 
single  out  Immanuel  Kant.  ...  A  sentence  is  viewed  by  him,  and  by  most 
of  his  countrymen,  as  a  rude  mould  or  elastic  form  admitting  of  expansion  to 
any  possible  extent ;  it  is  laid  down  as  a  rude  outline,  and  then,  by  super- 
struction  and  ^//-superstruction,  it  is  gradually  reared  to  a  giddy  altitude 
which  no  eye  can  follow.  Yielding  to  his  natural  impulse  of  subjoining  all 
additions  or  exceptions  or  modifications,  not  in  the  shape  of  separate  con- 
secutive sentences,  but  as  intercalations  and  stuffings  of  one  original  sen- 
tence, Kant  might  naturally  enough  have  written  a  book  from  beginning  to 
end  in  one  vast  hyperbolical  sentence." 

English  prose  literature  affords  abundant  examples  of  each 
style  ;  some  authors  prefer  the  short  sentence,  others  the  long, 
while  others  again  exhibit  in  their  writings  an  equal  proportion 
of  both. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  the  simple  structure  : 

"The  allies  had  during  a  short  time  obtained  the  most  appalling  suc- 
cesses. This  was  their  auspicious  moment.  They  neglected  to  improve  it 
It  passed  away  and  returned  no  more.  The  Prince  of  Orange  arrested  the 
progress  of  the  French  armies.  Louis  returned  to  be  amused  and  flattered 
at  Versailles.  The  country  was  under  water.  The  winter  approached." — 
Macaulay. 

With  this  may  be  contrasted  the  following  example  of  the 
periodic  structure : 

"  Were  I  ambitious  of  any  other  patron  than  the  public,  I  would  inscribe 
this  work  to  a  statesman  who,  in  a  long,  a  stormy,  and  at  length  an  unfor- 
tunate administration,  had  many  political  opponents  almost  without  a  per- 
sonal enemy ;  who  has  retained  on  his  fall  from  power  many  faithful  and 
disinterested  friends,.and  who  under  the  pressure  of  severe  infirmity  enjoys 
the  livdy  vigor  of  his  mind  and  the  felicity  of  his  incomparable  temper." — 
Gibbon. 

In  all  vivacious  writing,  the  simple  structure  is  very  gener- 
ally employed  ;  and  it  lends  itself  readily  to  a  brisk  and  brill- 
iant movement  of  thought : 

"  Don't  tell  me  that  I  am  giown  old  and  peevish  and  supercilious  ;  name 
the  geniuses  of  1774,  and  I  submit.  The  next  Augustan  age  will  dawn  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Atlantic.  There  will,  perhaps,  be  a  Thucydides  at 
Boston,  a  Xenophon  at  New  York,  and  in  time  a  Virgil  at  Mexico  and  a 
Newton  at  Peru.  At  last  some  curious  traveller  from  Lima  will  visit  Eng- 
land, and  give  a  description  of  the  ruins  of  St.  Paul's,  like  the  editions  of 
IJaalbec  and  Palmyra."— Horace  Walpole. 


Perspicuity  in  Sentences.  59 

In  graver  composition,  especially  of  the  didactic  sort,  the 
periodic  structure  is  more  common.  This  is  especia.<ly  seen 
in  the  works  of  Dr.  Johnson  : 

"And  yet  it  fills  me  with  wonder  that  in  almost  all  countries  the  most 
ancient  poets  are  considered  the  best ;  whether  it  be  that  every  other  kind 
of  knowledge  is  an  acquisition  gradually  attained,  and  poetry  is  a  gift  con- 
ferred at  once  ;  or  that  the  first  poetry  of  every  nation  surprised  them  as  a 
novelty,  and  retained  the  credit  by  consent  which  it  received  by  accident  at 
first ;  or  whether,  as  the  province  of  poetry  is  to  describe  nature  and  pas- 
sion, which  are  always  the  same,  the  first  writers  took  possession  of  the  most 
striking  objects  for  description,  and  the  most  probable  occurrences  for  fic- 
tion, and  left  nothing  to  those  who  followed  them  but  transcription  of  the 
same  events,  and  new  combinations  of  the  same  images." 

Both  styles  are  often  employed  by  the  same  writer.  The 
following  examples  are  taken  from  Leigh  Hunt's  essay  on 
Books: 

Periodic  structure  : 

"  Sitting  last  winter  among  my  books,  and  walled  round  with  all  the  com- 
fort and  protection  which  they  and  my  fireside  could  afford  me,  to  wit,  a 
table  of  high-piled  books  at  my  back,  my  writing-desk  on  one  side  of  me, 
some  shelves  on  the  other,  and  the  feeling  of  the  warm  fire  at  my  teet,  I 
began  to  consider  how  L  loved  the  authors  of  these  books ;  how  I  loved 
them^  too,  not  only  for  the  imaginative  pleasures  they  afforded  me,  but  for 
their  making  me  love  the  very  books  themselves,  and  delight  to  be  in  con- 
tact with  them." 

Simple  structure : 

"  I  intrench  myself  in  my  books  equally  against  sorrow  and  the  weather. 
If  the  wind  comes  through  a  passage,  I  look  about  to  see  ho^  I  can  fence 
it  off  by  a  better  disposition  of  my  movables.  If  a  melancholy  thought  is 
importunate,  I  give  another  glance  at  my  Spenser.  When  I  speak  of  being 
in  contact  with  my  books,  I  mean  it  literally ;  I  like  to  lean  my  head  against 
them." 

The  following  passages  are  from  the  writings  of  Chalmers  : 
Periodic  structure : 

.'         "  Though  the  earth  were  to  be  burned  up,  though  the  trumpet  of  its  dis- 

'      solution  were  sounded,  though  yon  sky  were  to  pass  away  as  a  scroll,  and 

every  visible  glory  which  the  finger  of  the  Divinity  has  inscribed  on  it  were 

extinguished  forever ;  an  event  so  awful  to  us  and  to  every  world  in  our  vi- 

,       cinity,  by  which  so  many  suns  would  be  extinguished,  and  so  many  varied 

V    Scenes  of  life  and  population  would  rush  into  forgetfulness — what  is  it  in 

"^  the  high  scale  of  the  Almighty's  workmanship  ?" 


6o  Ele?nents  of  Rhetoric. 

Simple  structure  : 

"  These  poor  animals  just  look,  and  tremble,  and  give  forth  the  very  indi- 
cations of  suffering  that  we  do.  Theirs  is  the  unequivocal  physiognomy  of 
pain.  They  put  on  the  same  aspect  of  terror  on  the  demonstrations  of  a 
menaced  blow.  They  exhibit  the  same  distortions  of  agony  after  the  inflic- 
tion of  it.  The  bruise,  the  burn,  or  the  fracture,  or  the  deep  incision,  or  the 
fierce  encounter  with  one  of  equal  or  superior  strength,  just  affects  them  simi- 
larly to  ourselves.  Their  blood  circulates  as  ours.  They  sicken,  and  they 
grow  feeble  with  age,  and  finally  they  die,  just  as  we  do." 

§  50.   RULE    FOR  THE   GENERAL   ARRANGEMENT   OF    WORDS    IN 
A   SENTENCE. 

Attention  must  be  paid  to  the  general  arrangement  of  words 
in  a  sentence. 

The  rule  which  is  usually  given  for  this  is  as  follows  :  The 
words  and  members  most  nearly  related  should  be  placed  in 
the  sentence  as  near  to  each  other  as  possible,  so  as  to  make 
their  mutual  relations  clearly  apparent.  The  same  rule  is  also 
stated  in  the  following  words  :  Those  parts  of  a  sentence  which 
are  most  closely  connected  in  their  meaning  should  be  as  close- 
ly as  possible  connected  in  position. 

From  inattention  to  this  various  errors  frequently  arise. 
Sometimes  the  adjective  is  placed  in  a  wrong  position : 

"  The  Episcopal  Church  furnishes  the  assurance  of  an  organic  and  un- 
broken unity  and  succession  from  the  apostles,  by  a  line  of  unbroken  bish- 
ops, down  to  the  bishop  of  this  diocese" 

The  writer  should  have  said,  "an  unbroken  line  of  bishops." 
The  adverb  is  misplaced  in  the  following  sentence : 

"  They  thought  that,  if  he  wanted  his  civil  rights,  he  ought  to  have  sent 
in  his  application  for  pardon  at  least" 

Here  "at  least "  seems  to  qualify  "  pardon,"  but  it  was  intend- 
ed to  refer  to  the  act  of  sending  in  an  application  ;  and  it  should 
have  been, "  he  ought  at  least  to  have  sent  in  his  application." 

The  position  of  the  relative  should  receive  careful  attention  : 

"  I  struck  the  animal  with  my  knife  on  the  head,  which,  being  made  of 
bad  steel,  broke,  and  I  was  left  at  his  mercy." 

"They  flew  to  arms  and  attacked  Northumberland's  horse,  whom  they 
put  to  death." 

In  these  sentences  the  position  of  the  relative  is  such  as  to 
give  an  absurd  turn  to  the  meaning. 


Perspicuity  in  Sentences.  6i 

Personal  pronouns  give  rise  to  frequent  obscurity,  and  the 
difficulty  attending  their  proper  management  is  sometimes  al- 
most insuperable.  Thus,  speaking  of  Marlborough,  a  writer 
says : 

"  He  had  an  interview  with  King  Charles,  and  spoke  much  about  his  vic- 
tories, telling  him  that  all  Europe  now  lay  at  his  feet,  and  that  the  final  issues 
of  the  war  were  in  his  hands." 

To  one  unacquainted  with  the  facts  this  sentence  would  be 
quite  unintelligible. 

Clarendon  writes  as  follows  ; 

"  On  which,  with  the  king's  and  queen's  so  ampic  promises  to  him,  so 
few  hours  before  conferring  the  place  upon  another,  and  the  Duke  of  York's 
manner  of  receiving  hini,  after  he  had  been  shut  up  with  him,  as  he  was  in- 
formed, might  very  well  excuse  him  from  thinking  he  had  some  share  in  the 
affront  he  had  undergone." 

One  way  of  preventing  such  obscurity  is  by  inserting  in  brack- 
ets after  each  pronoun  the  name  of  the  person  referred  to. 
This  is  commonly  done  by  reporters  of  speeches,  when  the  re- 
port of  the  speech  is  made  in  the  third  person  ;  as:  "  He  would 
inform  the  right  honorable  gentleman  that  he  [Mr.  Disraeli] 
differed  from  him  [Mr.  Gladstone]  in  every  particular."  This, 
though  the  easiest  way,  and  certainly  the  clearest,  is,  however, 
hardly  tolerable  in  general  prose  composition.  The  better  plan 
is  to  reconstruct  the  sentence  altogether.  This  may  be  done 
by  breaking  it  up  into  shorter  sentences,  or  by  substituting  for 
the  pronouns  the  names  that  may  be  appropriate,  the  reflexive, 
the  relative,  or  such  words  as  "  the  former,"  "  the  latter." 

The  position  of  clauses  requires  the  same  attention  as  that 
of  words,  and  gives  rise  to  the  same  class  of  errors  : 

"  He  determined  to  force  his  son  to  the  marriage,  and  afterwards  to  ob- 
tain the  king's  consent,  whether  he  would  or  not." 

In  this  sentence  the  final  clause  seems  to  refer  to  the  king, 
whereas  it  really  refers  to  the  "  son  "  spoken  of. 

Anthon  translates  a  passage  in  the  fifth  book  of  Xenophon's 
Anabasis  thus  : 

"  Boys  belonging  to  the  wealthy  classes,  fattened  by  being  fed  on  boiled 
chestnuts,  soft  and  exceedingly  white,  and  not  wanting  much  of  being  equal 
In  length  and  breadth,  of  various  colors  on  their  backs,"  etc. 

In  the  original  the  inflections  of  the  words  prevent  obscurity; 


62  Elements  of  Rlietoric. 

but  here  it  is  not  quite  certain  whether  it  is  the  boys  or  the 
chestnuts  that  are  thus  characterized. 

§  51.   LIMITATIONS   TO   THE   GENERAL   RULE   OF   ARRANGEMENT. 

The  above  rule  for  arrangement  is  subject  to  limitations. 

No  composition  can  be  so  framed  as  to  withstand  the  pos- 
sible distortions  or  wilful  misapprehensions  of  hypercritical 
readers,  who  refuse  to  take  the  obvious  meaning  of  a  sentence, 
and  seize  upon  one  which  they  may  contrive  to  extract  from 
the  words.  Such  a  course  could  reduce  to  nonsense  the  finest 
passages  of  literature,  and  by  its  excesses  destroy  everything 
like  true  criticism.  The  writer  must  always  remember,  and  the 
critic  also,  that  fair  and  candid  treatment  is  to  be  expected. 
To  be  perspicuous  is  to  be  intelligible  to  those  to  whom  a  writ- 
ing is  addressed,  and  not  to  write  so  that  a  sentence  cannot 
possibly  be  distorted  in  meaning.  This  is  not  only  impossible 
in  itself,  but  the  very  attempt  would  destroy  all  ease  or  vivac- 
ity of  style,  and  reduce  all  composition  to  one  dead  level  of 
dulness. 

In  the  arrangement  of  words  there  are  various  things  to  be 
considered. 

I.  Emphasis. 

The  subject  of  emphasis  is  one  of  the  utmost  importance,  and 
will  receive  a  fuller  treatment  in  a  more  appropriate  place,  and 
is  now  merely  touched  upon  in  order  to  show  its  effect  upon 
the  arrangement  of  words. 

In  all  sentences  there  are  emphatic  words  which  in  many 
cases  indicate  their  character  sufficiently  well  by  the  context. 
But  careful  writers  are  generally  desirous  of  adding  to  the  force 
of  these ;  and  the  chief  way  in  which  this  can  be  done  is  by 
placing  them  in  an  unusual  position : 

"  Me  he  restored  to  my  position,  and  him  he  hanged." 
"  Him,  being  delivered  by  the  determinate  counsel  and  foreknowledge  of 
God,  ye  have  taken,  and  by  wicked  hands  have  crucified  and  slain." 

In  the  first  of  these  sentences  "  me  "  and  "  him,"  which  or- 
dinarily would  be  connected  in  position  with  "  restored  "  and 
"hanged,"  are  separated  from  them  by  the  personal  pronoun. 

In  the  second  this  separation  is  greater,  and  the  emphasis  is 
more  striking.    According  to  the  rule  "him"  follows  "  taken 3'* 


Perspicuity  in  Sentences.  63 

but  here  they  are  separated,  with  no  less  than  twelve  words 
between  them. 

2.  The  general  rule  for  arrangement  is  also  affected  by  paren- 
thetical clauses,  which  include  all  those  phrases  or  statements 
inserted  in  the  body  of  a  sentence  for  purposes  of  explanation 
or  illustration.  These,  when  properly  employed,  are  not  only 
intelligible,  but  contribute  in  the  highest  degree  to  the  clear- 
ness of  the  writer,  and  as  such  should  be  employed  wherever 
they  are  needed  : 

"  He  came  over,  to  my  amazement,  and  accosted  me." 

To  pretend  that  the  phrase  "  to  my  amazement "  is  grammat- 
ically the  object  of  "  he  came  over,"  is  a  piece  of  trivial  crit- 
icism which  is  beneath  notice. 

*'  People  fall,  from  their  ignorance,  into  strange  mistakes." 

This  is  a  sentence  of  a  similar  character,  which  is  quite  clear 
and  faultless  in  construction.  In  both  of  these  we  see  that 
words  most  nearly  connected  may  be  separated,  whenever  it  is 
desirable,  by  parenthetical  clauses. 

3.  Relatives. 

A  sentence  may  be  perfectly  intelligible  even  when  the 
relative  is  separated  from  its  antecedent : 

"  Xenophon,  the  disciple  of  Socrates,  who  wrote  the^Iemorabilia." 

It  may  be  said  that  Socrates  is  described  here  as  the  writer 
of  the  Memorabilia;  but  a  sufficient  answer  is  that  Xenophon's 
authorship  may  be  considered  as  too  well  known  to  be  mis- 
taken. 

"Paris,  the  capital  of  France,  which  at  that  time  was  the  largest  city  in 
Europe." 

Here  it  may  be  said  that  France  is  described  as  the  largest 
city  in  Europe  ;  but  for  perversity  or  ignorance  which  could  so 
distort  the  meaning  of  plain  sentences  the  average  author  does 
not  pretend  to  write. 

In  this  case  there  is  a  rule,  sanctioned  by  the  best  writers, 
which  may  be  stated  thus  :  Attributive,  descriptive,  or  explana- 
tory terms  may  stand  between  the  antecedent  and  its  relative, 
as,  "  Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip,  who  conquered  Persia." 

In  the  case  of  personal  pronouns  it  is  sufficient  for  the  writer 


64  Eleme7its  of  Rhetoric. 

to  frame  his  sentences  for  people  of  ordinary  candor  and  intel- 
ligence, and  see  that  there  be  as  little  obscurity  as  possible. 
This  can  best  be  done  by  allowing  the  context  to  throw  light 
on  the  reference  of  the  pronouns  in  each  instance. 

The  true  rule  to  follow  is  to  allow  the  words  and  members 
of  a  sentence  which  are  most  nearly  related  to  stand  as  near 
to  one  another  as  may  be  consistent  with  a  due  regard  for  em- 
phasis, or  for  explanatory  words  and  clauses.  To  this  may  be 
added  a  general  rule  laid  down  by  a  recent  Edinburgh  review- 
er :  "  Write  in  a  way  which  cannot  be  misunderstood  by  a  read- 
er of  common  candor  and  intelligence." 

§  52.  UNITY. 

In  the  construction  of  sentences,  attention  must  also  be  paid 
to  unity. 

Unity  is  that  quality  of  style  by  which  the  precise  idea  of 
the  writer  is  presented  to  the  mind  as  one  whole,  with  all  its 
co-ordinate  and  subordinate  relations  duly  arranged  so  that  no 
misconception  can  arise. 

A  sentence  is  the  enunciation  of  a  thought,  which  may  be 
presented  in  the  simplest  or  the  most  complex  form  ;  and  thus 
sentences  may  be  found  which  range  all  the  way  from  a  mere 
statement  of  not  more  than  two  words  up  to  entire  page% 
which  may  be  fiWed  by  one  long,  complicated,  and  highly  elab- 
orated period. 

Sentences  are  called  simple,  complex,  or  compound  ;  but 
these  may  all  be  analyzed,  and  reduced  to  subject  and  predi- 
cate. The  difference  between  the  short  and  the  long  sentence 
is  that  the  former  is  generally  simple  or  complex,  and  the  lat- 
ter is  compound.  In  the  former  there  is  seldom  any  lack  of 
unity  ;  it  is  with  the  latter  that  this  subject  has  to  do. 
.  Sentences  are  called  compound  when  they  contain  two  or 
more  principal  assertions,  co-ordinate  with  each  other.  There 
are  three  principal  relations  in  which  the  parts  of  a  compound 
sentence  may  stand  towards  each  other :  first,  when  they  are 
coupled  together,  as, "  Man  proposes,  God  disposes ;"  secondly, 
the  antithetical,  as,  "  A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father,  but  a 
foolish  son  is  a  heaviness  to  his  mother;"  thirdly,  the  causative, 
as,  "As  he  was  valiant,  I  honor  him;  but  as  he  was  ambitious, 
I  slew  him." 


Perspicuity  in  Sentences.  65 

In  every  sentence,  however  long  or  involved,  there  is  or 
ought  to  be  some  dominant  idea,  to  which  all  the  statements 
refer;  and  unity  means  the  preservation  of  this  dominant  idea 
in  its  prominent  place  before  the  mind. 

In  this  way  the  attention  of  the  reader  is  retained,  and  his 
intelligence  is  satisfied  ;  otherwise  he  loses  his  grasp  of  the 
idea ;  and  as  he  quickly  becomes  distracted  among  various 
circumstances,  the  result  is  obscurity.  1 

§  53.    PROMINENCE   OF   THE   PRINCIPAL   SUBJECT. 

In  order  to  preserve  unity  in  the  construction  of  sentences, 
it  is  necessary  to  pay  attention  to  several  things,  which  will 
now  be  considered. 

I.  The  principal  idea  should  retain  its  prominent  place  be- 
fore the  mind  of  the  reader,  and  transitions  from  one  topic  to 
another  should  not  be  made  in  the  same  sentence. 

An  example  of  this  is  found  in  the  following  sentence,  the 
length  of  which  does  not  interfere  with  its  unity  : 

"  Remember  that  at  this  very  moment,  and  at  each  tick  of  the  clock, 
some  fifty  souls  have  departed  hence,  gone  with  their  tempestuous  passions, 
their  strife,  their  truth,  their  hopes,  into  space  and  silence  ;  not,  either,  with 
the  appearance  of  forces  spent  and  finished — for  there  are  children  fallen 
away,  with  expectant  look  on  life,  nothing  doubting  the  secure  embrace  that 
seems  to  fold  them  round  ;  there  is  youth,  raised  up  to  self-subsistence,  not 
without  difficulty  and  sorrow,  with  the  clear,  deep  light  of  thought  and  won- 
der shining  from  within,  quenched  in  sudden  night ;  there  is  many  an  heroic 
life  built  on  no  delusion  of  sense  and  selfishness,  but,  firm  on  the  adamant 
of  faith,  and  defying  the  seductions  of  falsehood  and  the  threats  of  fear, 
sunk  from  us  absolutely  away,  and- giving  no  answer  to  our  recalling  en- 
treaties and  our  tears." — James  Martineau. 

The  theme  here  is  that  some  fifty  souls  die  every  second  \ 
these  are  then  classified  ;  and  the  different  classes  are  minor 
subjects,  among  which  the  principal  subject  never  loses  its 
prominence. 

The  following  sentence,  which  is  an  equally  good  illustration, 
is  constructed  on  similar  principles  : 

"There  sits  a  somewhat  ancestral  dignity  and  glory  on  this  favorite  pas- 
time of  joyous  old  England;  when  the  gallant  knighthood,  and  the  hearty 
yeomen,  and  the  amateurs  or  virtuosos  of  the  chase,  and  the  full  assembled 
jockeyship  of  half  a  province,  muster  together  in  all  the  pride  and  pageant- 
ry of  their  great  emprise ;  and  the  panorama  of  some  noble  landscape, 


6b  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

lighted  up  with  an  autumnal  clearness  from  an  unclouded  heaven,  pours 
fresh  exhilaration  into  every  blithe  and  choice  spirit  of  .he  scene ;  and 
every  adventurous  heart  is  braced  and  impatient  for  the  hazards  of  the  com-  , 
ing  enterprise ;  and  even  the  high-breathed  coursers  catch  the  general  sym- 
pathy, and  seem  to  fret  in  all  the  restiveness  of  their  yet  checked  and  irri- 
tated fire,  till  the  echoing  horn  shall  set  them  at  liberty  ;  even  that  horn 
which  is  the  knell  of  death  to  some  trembling  victim  now  brought  forth  of 
its  lurking-place  to  the  delighted  gaze,  and  borne  down  upon  with  the  full 
and  open  cry  of  its  ruthless  pursuers." — Chalmers. 

In  this  sentence  there  is  the  enumeration  of  many  different 
particulars,  yet  they  create  no  confusion  whatever,  for  they  are 
all  kept  in  due  subordination  to  the  chief  statement,  which  is 
that  "  dignity  and  glory  "  is  connected  with  the  chase,  and  to 
this  all  others  serve  as  illustrations. 

The  following  sentence  is  of  unusual  length,  yet  the  unity  of 
construction  is  preserved  throughout : 

••  He  urged  to  him  that  the  desperate  situation  of  the  Duke  of  Normandy 
made  it  requisite  for  that  prince  to  bring  matters  to  a  speedy  decision,  and 
put  his  whole  fortune  on  the  issue  of  a  battle;  but  that  the  king  of  England, 
in  his  own  country,  beloved  by  his  own  subjects,  provided  with  every  supply, 
had  more  certain  and  less  dangerous  means  of  insuring  to  himself  the  victory; 
that  the  Norman  troops,  elated,  on  the  one  hand,  with  the  highest  hopes, 
and  seeing,  on  the  other,  no  resource  in  case  of  a  discomfiture,  would  fight 
to  the  last  extremity,  and  being  the  flower  of  all  the  warriors  on  the  Conti- 
nent, must  be  regarded  as  formidable  to  the  English  ;  that  if  their  first  fire, 
which  is  always  the  most  dangerous,  were  allowed  to  languish  for  want  of 
action,  if  they  were  harassed  with  small  skirmishes,  shortened  in  provisions, 
and  fatigued  with  the  bad  weather  and  deep  roads  during  the  winter  season, 
which  was  approaching,  they  must  fall  an  easy  and  bloodless  prey  to  their 
enemy ;  that  if  a  general  action  were  delayed,  the  English,  sensible  of  the 
imminent  danger  to  which  their  properties  as  well  as  liberties  were  exposed 
from  those  rapacious  invaders,  would  hasten  from  all  quarters  to  his  assist- 
ance, and  would  render  his  army  invincible  ;  that  at  least,  if  he  thought  it 
necessary  to  hazard  a  battle,  he  ought  not  to  expose  his  own  person,  but  re- 
ser\'e,  in  case  of  disastrous  accidents,  some  resource  to  the  liberty  and  inde-*— 
pendence  of  the  kingdom  ;  and  that  having  once  been  so  unfortunate  as  to 
be  constrained  to  swear,  and  that  upon  the  holy  relics,  to  support  the  pre- . 
tensions  of  the  Duke  of  Normandy,  it  were  better  that  the  command  of  the 
army  should  be  intrusted  to  another,  who,  not  being  bound  by  those  sacred 
ties,  might  give  the  soldiers  more  assured  hopes  of  a  prosperous  issue  to  the 
combat." — Hume. 

This  is  like  the  report  of  a  speech  ;  there  is  a  succession  of 
particulars,  but  all  are  kept  in  subordination  to  the  main  idea, 
which  is  the  address  of  Gurth  to  King  Harold. 


Perspicuity  iii  Sentences.  6/ 

Violations  of  this  law  of  unity  are  very  common.  We  often 
find  carelessly  huddled  together  in  the  same  sentence  a  suc- 
cession of  particulars,  which  divert  the  mind  more  and  more 
from  the  principal  subject,  until  at  last  it  is  forgotten.  Lord 
Clarendon  is  a  great  offender  in  this  respect ;  and  the  following 
sentence,  which  serves  to  illustrate  this  fault,  is  a  very  fair 
specimen  of  his  loose  and  careless  construction  : 

*•  That  people,  after  they  had  once  begun,  pursued  the  business  vigorous- 
ly, and  with  all  imaginable  contempt  of  the  government ;  and  though  in  the 
hubbub  of  the  first  day  there  appeared  nobody  of  name  and  reckoning,  but 
the  actors  were  really  of  the  dregs  of  the  people,  yet  they  discovered  by  the 
countenance  of  that  day  that  few  men  of  rank  were  forward  to  engage  them- 
selves on  behalf  of  the  bishops,  whereupon  more  considerable  persons  every 
day  appeared  against  them  as  heretofore  in  the  case  of  St.  Paul — Acts  xiii., 
50  :  '  The  Jews  stirred  up  devout  and  honorable  women ' — the  women  and 
ladies  of  the  best  quality  declared  themselves  of  the  party,  and,  with  all  the 
reproaches  imaginable,  made  war  upon  the  bishops  as  intro<lucers  of  popery 
and  superstition,  against  which  they  avowed  themselves  to  be  irreconcila- 
ble enemies,  and  their  husbands  did  not  long  defer  the  owning  of  the  same 
spirit,  insomuch  that  within  a  few  days  the  bishops  durst  not  appear  in  the 
streets,  nor  in  any  courts  or  houses,  but  were  in  danger  of  theii*  lives  ;  and 
such  of  the  lords  as  durst  be  in  their  company,  or  seemed  to  desire  to  res- 
cue them  from  violence,  had  their  coaches  torn  to  pieces  and  their  persons 
assaulted,  insomuch  that  they  were  glad  to  seijd  for  some  of  those  great 
men  who  did,  indeed,  govern  the  rabble,  though  they  appeared  not  in  it, 
who  readily  came,  and  redeemed  them  out  of  their  hands,  so  that  by  the 
time  new  orders  came  from  England  there  was  scarce  a  bishop  left  in  Edin- 
burgh, and  not  a  minister  who  durst  read  the  Liturgy  in  any  church." 

There  is  no  principal  subject  here,  but  several  of  equal  im- 
portance, which  interfere  with  each  other.  An  analysis  of  this 
sentence  shows  the  following  statements  :  i.  The  people  pur- 
sued the  business ;  2.  Influential  men  began  to  appear ;  3. 
Women  and  ladies  came  forward ;  4.  Their  husbands  fol- 
lowed ;  5.  The  bishops  were  in  danger ;  6.  Their  defenders 
were  maltreated  ;  7.  There  was  scarce  a  bishop  left,  and  not  a 
minister  that  dared  officiate. 

The  following  passage  is  taken  from  Milman's  History  of 
Latin  Christianity : 

**  Under  the  stately  nave  of  the  cathedral  of  that  city,  where  the  aspiring 
Lombard,  or,  rather,  Italian  architecture  had  lifted  the  roof  to  a  majestic 
height  yet  unequalled  in  Italy  even  by  Gothic  assistance,  and  supported  on 
tall  harmonious  pillars,  even  now  the  noblest  model  of  the  Italian  Basilica 
expanded  into  the  Latin  cross ;  where  over  the  altar  hovered  the  vast  and 

D 


68  Elements  of  RJutoric. 

solemn  picture  of  our  Lord,  with  the  Virgin  on  one  side,  Sl  John  on  the 
other,  in  which  Cimabue  made  the  last  and  most  splendid  effort  of  the  old 
rigid  Hyzantine  art  to  retain  its  imperilled  supremacy  ;  and  thus  Latin 
Christianity  seemed  to  assert  its  rights  against  Teutonic  independence  be- 
fore their  final  severance ;  beneath  these  auspices  met  the  most  august  as- 
sembly, as  to  the  numbers  and  rank  of  the  prelates,  and  the  ambassadors  of 
Christian  kings,  which  for  centuries  had  assumed  the  functions  of  a  repre- 
sentative senate  of  Christendom." 

In  this  sentence  the  description  of  the  place  of  meeting,  quite 
allowable  in  itself,  and  when  properly  treated  with  due  subor- 
dination to  the  main  idea,  is  interrupted  by  side  remarks  which 
tend  to  distract  the  attention  and  obscure  the  meaning.  These 
may  be  stated  in  the  following  order:  i.  The  height  never  be- 
fore equalled;  2.  The  tall  pillars;  3.  The  Italian  Basilica  ex- 
panded into  a  Latin  cross ;  4.  The  picture  over  the  altar ;  5. 
Byzantine  art ;  6.  Latin  Christianity  asserting  its  rights.  From 
the  beginning  to  the  end  of  this  long  sentence  the  sense  is  held 
in  suspense  ;  and  after  the  presentation  of  this  array  of  topics, 
the  interrupted  sentence  is  at  length  resumed  ;  but  the  reader's 
attention  "has  been  carried  so  far  away  from  the  subject  that 
the  connection  can  only  be  perceived  with  difficulty.  There  is 
a  similar  passage  in  Macaulay's  essay  on  Warren  Hastings, 
where  he  describes  the  scene  of  the  trial.  In  this  the  simple 
structure  is  adopted.  The  same  effort  is  made  in  each  to  pre- 
pare the  reader  for 'the  acts  of  an  assembly,  by  a  description 
of  the  place  in  which  those  acts  occurred.  But  in  Macaulay's 
work  there  is  no  confusion ;  the  scene  is  presented  with  vivid 
distinctness ;  and  the  impression  left  upon  the  mind  is  at  once 
clear  and  permanent. 

These  faults  may  be  perceived  in  shorter  sentences  as  well 
as  in  those  of  greater  length. 

"After  Napoleon's  escape  from  Elba,  and  landing  on  the  coast  of  France, 
he  advanced  as  rapidly  as  possible  towards  Paris,  and  on  the  way  he  was  met 
by  the  troops  under  the  command  of  Marshal  Ney,  who  had  sworn  to  bring 
him  back  in  an  iron  cage,  but  now  saluted  him  as  emperor." 

Here  the  fault  consists  in  a  transition  from  Napoleon  to 
Marshal  Ney  ;  for  whereas  the  sentence  begins  with  the  escape 
of  the  former  from  Elba,  and  his  march  on  Paris,  it  ends  with 
the  action  of  the  latter. 

"  The  successor  of  Henry  II.  was  Francis  II.,  the  first  husband  of  Mary, 


Perspicuity  in  Sentences,  69 

afterwards  Queen  of  Scots,  who  died  after  a  reign  of  one  year,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  brother,  Charles  IX,,  then  a  boy  only  ten  years  old,  who 
had  for  his  guardian  Catherine  de'  Medici,  an  ambitious  and  unscrupulous 
woman." 

In  this  sentence  a  transition  is  made  from  Francis  II.  to 
Charles  IX.,  and  another  to  Catherine  de'  Medici. 

§  54.    APPENDED   CLAUSES. 

2.  Another  rule  for  the  observance  of  unity  is  that  mem- 
bers should  not  be  added  after  the  sentence  has  come  to  a 
close. 

In  the  following  sentence  from  Lord  Clarendon's  History,  a 
violation  of  this  rule  will  be  noticed  : 

'♦The  next  day  upon  the  plains.  Dr.  Henchman,  one  of  the  prebends  of 
Salisbury,  met  the  king,  the  Lord  Wilmot  and  Philips  then  leaving  him  to 
go  to  the  sea-coast  to  find  a  vessel,  the  doctor  conducting  the  king  to  a 
place  called  Heale,  three  miles  from  Salisbury,  belonging  then  to  Sergeant 
Hyde,  who  was  afterwards  Chief-Justice  of  the  King's  Bench,  and  then  in 
possession  of  the  widow  of  his  elder  brother  ;  a  house  that  stood  alone  from 
neighbors  and  from  any  highway,  where,  coming  in  late,  he  supped  with 
some  gentlemen  that  were  accidentally  in  the  house,  which  could  not  very 
well  be  avoided." 

This  whole  passage  is  confused  in  its  arrangement,  but  the 
most  noticeable  fault  is  the  appendage  of  a  clause  after  the 
words  "elder  brother,"  where  the  sentence  comes  naturally  to 
an  end. 

§  55.    THE   PARENTHESIS. 

3.  Unity  requires  that  proper  attention  be  paid  to  the  use  of 
the  parenthesis. 

The  parenthesis  generally  conveys  an  idea  of  a  subordinate 
character,  and  it  is  inserted  in  the  midst  of  the  sentence  near- 
est to  those  words  whose  meaning  it  is  designed  to  affect. 
When  properly  employed  it  is  of  great  value  in  composition, 
and  need  not  interfere  at  all  with  the  unity  of  the  sentence ; 
but  it  is  very  liable  to  improper  use. 

The  parenthesis  is  usually  indicated  by  certain  marks;  but 
these  are  merely  for  the  convenience  of  the  reader,  and  in  many 
cases  it  has  nothing  whatever  to  indicate  its  presence.  Whether 
these  marks  be  used  or  not  is  a  mere  question  of  punctuation, 
and  does  not  at  all  affect  the  true  nature  of  the  parenthesis. 


70  Elements  of  EJietoric. 

The  parenthesis  is  useful  under  the  following  circumstances: 

1.  To  give  emphasis. 

The  following  is  an  example  : 

"  Suppose  (and  we  beg  pardon  for  putting  such  a  supposition  even  for  the 
sake  of  argument)  that  the  Duke  of  Wellington  had,  after  the  campaign  of 
1815,  privately  accepted  ;^200,cxx5  from  Louis  XVIIL,  as  a  mark  of  his 
gratitude."— Macaulay. 

Here  the  parenthesis  conveys  an  apology  for  putting  a  sup- 
posed case ;  and  therefore  the  thing  referred  to  is  marked  as 
disgraceful  and  infamous,  with  an  emphasis  that  could  not 
otherwise  be  given. 

2.  The  parenthesis  is  also  used  to  offer  a  necessary  expla- 
nation : 

*'  If  the  debt  were  wiped  out  (a  measure,  be  it  understood,  which  we  by  no 
means  recommend),  the  fundholder  would  cease  to  spend  his  five  hundred  a 
year." — Macaulay. 

Here  the  parenthesis  inserts  a  necessary  explanation  of  the 
author's  own  views  in  the  most  convenient  and  striking  place. 

3.  Another  case  is  to  be  found  in  parenthetical  clauses. 
These  are  numerous  and  useful.     They  comprise  all  such 

convenient  and  often  indispensable  formulas  as  the  following: 
"  So  to  speak,"  "  strange  to  say,"  "  if  I  may  be  allowed  the  ex- 
pression," "  in  spite  of  himself,"  "  out  of  the  very  kindness  of 
his  heart,"  "  through  utter  ignorance,"  "  through  mere  wanton- 
ness," "awful  thought,"  and  the  like. 

In  all  cases  where  the  parenthesis  is  used  care  should  be 
taken  that  there  be  no  abrupt  transition,  but  that  it  flow  on- 
ward smoothly  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Errors  in  the  use  of  the  parenthesis  are  very  common.  Some 
writers  employ  them  to  an  excessive  degree,  and  seem  unable 
to  produce  any  number  of  sentences  without  inserting  explan- 
atory clauses  or  modifying  statements.  Their  intention  is  to 
make  the  meaning  clearer;  but  the  result  of  so  many  inter- 
ruptions to  the  course  of  thought  is  generally  to  make  it  ob- 
scure. 

The  improper  use  of  the  parenthesis  takes  place  whenever  it 
is  of  undue  length  or  of  too  frequent  occurrence,  or  when  it  has 
too  slight  a  connection  with  the  subject  under  consideration. 
This  may  be  seen  in  the  following  passage  from  De  Quincey : 


Perspiaiity  in  Sentences.  71 

*'  Forty  years  ago  (or  in  all  probability  a  good  deal  more,  for  we  have 
already  completed  thirty-seven  years  from  Waterloo,  and  my  remembrance 
upon  this  subject  goes  back  to  a  period  lying  much  behind  that  great  era) 
I  used  to  be  annoyed  and  irritated  by  the  false  interpretation  given  to  the 
Greek  word  aidv  (eson).^^ 

Here  the  parenthesis  is  of  undue  length,  for  out  of  fifty-five 
words  it  comprises  thirty-four;  and  besides,  while  the  sentence 
refers  to  false  interpretations  of  the  Greek  word,  the  parenthesis 
takes  away  the  attention  of  the  reader  to  the  totally  different 
subject  of  the  era  of  Waterloo. 

In  the  following  example  from  Bolingbroke  the  same  fault 
may  be  seen  : 

"It  seems  to  me  that  in  order  to  maintain  the  system  of  the  world  at  a 
certain  point  far  below  that  of  ideal  perfection  (for  we  are  made  capable  of 
conceiving  what  we  are  incapable  of  attaining),  but,  however,  sufficient  upon 
the  whole  to  constitute  a  state  easy  and  happy  (or  at  the  worst,  tolerable) ; 
1  say,  it  seems  to  me  that  the  Author  of  nature  has  seen  fit  to  mingle  among 
the  societies  of  men  a  few,  and  but  a  few,  of  those  on  whom  he  is  graciously 
pleased  to  bestow  a  larger  portion  of  the  ethereal  spirit  than  is  given  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  his  government  to  the  sons  of  men." 

This  passage  exhibits  many  faults,  such  as  useless  repetitions, 
tedious  circumlocution,  and  general  awkwardness  of  construc- 
tion; but  the  thing  to  be  noticed  here  is  the  use  of  the  paren- 
thesis without  any  sufficient  cause,  and  its  occurrence  twice 
in  the  same  sentence. 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  a  translation  of  Rotteck's 
Universal  History : 

**  Only  what  was  decreed  or  approved  by  such  assemblies  (of  the  people 
themselves  in  so  far  as  it  was  possible,  or  at  least  of  the  great  who  represent- 
ed them  in  some  measure)  was  regarded  as  law." 

Here  the  parenthesis  is  of  disproportionate  length,  since  it 
comprises  twenty-three  words  out  of  thirty-six. 

§  56.   UNITY   IN   LONG  AND   SHORT   SENTENCES. 

From  the  foregoing  illustrations  it  is  evident  that  unity  does 
not  depend  upon  mere  length,  since  it  may  be  as  well  observed 
in  the  periodic  as  in  the  simple  structure.  The  long  sentence 
has  its  own  beauties  and  its  own  advantages;  but  it  requires 
more  careful  handling  and  a  higher  degree  of  elaboration  in 
order  to  be  effective.     Violations  of  unity  are  no  doubt  chiefly 


72  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

visible  in  long  sentences,  but  these  arise  not  so  much  from 
their  length  as  from  the  carelessness  of  the  writer.  Lord  Clar- 
endon, amid  many  excellences  which  have  made  his  history 
a  classical  work,  exhibits  this  one  great  blemish;  for  his  care- 
less constructions  lead  to  more  frequent  offences  against  unity 
than  can  be  found  in  any  other  writer  of  equal  merit.  His 
habit  often  is  to  begin  a  statement,  and  then  append  clause 
after  clause,  joining  each  by  any  connective  that  may  come  to 
hand,  without  any  thought  of  proper  subordination ;  and  when 
at  length  the  sentence  comes  to  an  end,  its  close  does  not 
appear  to  depend  upon  any  purpose  of  the  writer,  but  seems 
rather  to  come  by  chance. 

Where  unity  is  thus  affected  the  remedy  is  generally  easy. 
Either  the  sentence  itself  may  be  reconstructed,  or,  if  this  can- 
not be  done,  it  may  be  broken  up  into  two  or  more  new  ones, 
each  of  which  will  be  complete  in  itself. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

PERSPICUITY  IN  GENERAL. 

§  57.   PERSPICUITY    IN   GENERAL. — CLEARNESS    OF    CONCEPTION 
AND    METHOD. 

We  have  now  to  consider  the  subject  of  perspicuity  in  gen- 
eral. 

The  chief  requisite  here  is  clearness  of  conception  on  the 
part  of  the  writer.  It  is  evident  that  one  who  has  distinct  ideas 
of  his  subject  will  be  best  able  to  impart  such  ideas  to  others; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  said  that  without  this  it  is  im- 
possible to  attain  to  perspicuity.  No  writer  can  give  to  others 
that  which  he  himself  does  not  possess.  Of  obscure  passages, 
some  are  without  any  definite  meaning;  others  lead  to  a  con- 
clusion which  is  not  what  is  to  be  expected  from  the  context; 
others  again  are  susceptible  of  a  meaning  which  was  never  in 
the  mind  of  the  writer ;  and  in  such  cases  the  fault  will  gen- 
erally be  found  to  arise  from  the  lack  of  clear  conceptions  on 
the  part  of  the  author. 


Perspicuity  in  General.  73 

But  even  where  the  writer  has  the  clearest  possible  concep- 
tion of  his  subject,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  his  style  will  be 
perspicuous.  The  art  of  expression  must  be  studied  as  well ; 
and  where  this  is  neglected  the  most  complete  and  acknowl- 
edged mastery  of  the  subject  will  not  prevent  obscurity. 

In  addition  to  this,  the  argument  must  be  presented  in  a  dis- 
tinct and  intelligible  manner.  However  clear  the  ideas  may 
be,  and  however  lucid  the  individual  sentences,  unless  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  whole  be  perspicuous,  the  general  impression 
left  upon  the  mind  will  after  all  be  but  vague  and  obscure. 
Hence  the  order  of  thought  must  be  attended  to,  as  well  as  the 
art  of  expression. 

A  conspicuous  example  of  one  whose  method  is  inferior  to 
his  power  of  expression  may  be  found  in  De  Quincey.  No  Eng- 
lish prose  writer  surpasses  him  in  command  over  words,  or  in 
the  construction  of  sentences ;  but  he  seems  incapable  of  ar- 
ranging his  thoughts,  in  the  most  effective  manner.  His  suc- 
cession of  ideas  is  often  quite  inconsequential ;  he  inserts  un- 
expectedly new  suggestions  which  distract  the  attention ;  he  is 
discursive,  irregular,  unmethodical ;  and  at  the  close  of  his  es- 
say the  reader  finds  that  he  has  been  engaged  in  a  delightful 
survey  of  several  pleasing  themes,  among  which  the  formal  sub- 
ject is  far  from  being  the  most  prominent. 

Nowhere  is  this  so  strikingly  visible  as  in  the  difference  be- 
fore alluded  to  between  French  and  German  writers.  The  lat- 
ter, who  in  many  cases  are  the  acknowledged  leaders  in  sci- 
ence and  philosophy,  are  notoriously  obscure  in  the  expression 
of  their  ideas,  and  confused  in  the  arrangement  of  them  ;  while 
the  former,  who  are  most  precise  in  the  expression  of  their 
thoughts,  are  no  less  clear  and  luminous  in  their  method. 

In  connection  with  perspicuity  in  general  various  qualities 
of  style  present  themselves  for  consideration,  and  these  have 
both  their  beauties  and  defects,  which  will  be  noticed  in  order. 

§  58.    CONCISENESS,  OR    BREVITY. 

Conciseness  means  the  employment  of  no  more  words  than 
are  absolutely  necessary.  When  not  carried  too  far  it  may  be 
quite  consistent  with  perspicuity.  "  Brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit," 
and  great  and  important  truths  are  often  summed  up  in  a  short 
but  pithy  statement.     The  most  familiar  examples  of  this  are 


74  Elemtnts  of  Rlutoric. 

found  in  proverbs,  maxims,  and  current  sayings,  which  are 
usually  as  clear  as  they  are  brief.  Certain  writers  are  fond  of 
this  mode  of  expression ;  and  as  it  is  frequently  very  effective 
when  associated  with  the  figure  antithesis,  so  those  writers  who 
are  most  concise  will  generally  be  found  employing  an  anti- 
thetical style.  Tacitus,  Lord  Bacon,  and  Emerson  are  striking 
examples  of  this. 

The  following  sentences  exhibit  this  quality : 

"  Content  may  dwell  in  all  stations.  To  be  low,  but  above  contempt,  may 
be  high  enough  to  be  happy.  But  many  of  low  degree  may  be  higher  than 
computed,  and  some  cubits  above  the  common  commensuration  ;  for  in  all 
states,  virtue  gives  qualifications  and  allowances  which  make  out  defects. 
Rough  diamonds  arc  sometimes  mistaken  for  pebbles ;  and  meanness  may 
be  rich  in  accomplishments  which  riches  in  vain  desire." — Sir  Thomas 
Browne. 

In  this  passage  we  find  no  more  words  employed  than  are 
absolutely  necessary.  The  style  is  compact  and  energetic,  yet 
quite  clear;  and  if  the  reader  feels  himself  constrained  to  pause 
over  the  perusal  of  these  sentences,  it  is  not  on  account  of  their 
obscurity,  but  rather  from  the  perception  of  a  suggested  mean- 
ing underlying  that  which  is  at  first  apparent. 

Sometimes  the  meaning  is  not  at  once  evident,  and  patient 
attention  is  required  in  order  to  arrive  at  it.  This  may  be 
seen  in  the  following  sentences  from  Emerson  : 

"  Literature  is  a  point  outside  of  our  hodiernal  circle  through  which  a 
new  one  may  be  described." 

"  Our  moods  do  not  believe  in  each  other." 
"  Men  walk  as  prophecies  of  the  next  age." 

Sometimes  the  thought  is  not  stated  at  sufficient  length. 
Conciseness  is  a  virtue  in  style  when  the  words  are  sufficient; 
but  when  they  are  too  few,  then  obscurity  is  the  result.  Con- 
cise writers,  as  may  be  expected,  while  seeking  to  express  them- 
selves with  but  few  words,  often  limit  them  to  too  small  a  num- 
ber ;  and  for  this  reason  are  understood  with  difficulty.  Hence 
those  who  are  distinguished  for  this  quality  abound  in  obscure 
passages.  This  arises,  first,  from  an  excessive  paucity  of  words ; 
secondly,  from  elliptical  forms  of  expression  ;  and,  thirdly,  from 
not  dwelling  sufficiently  upon  the  thought  that  has  been  ex- 
pressed. 


Perspicuity  in  General.  7j 

Emerson's  style  is  concise;  it  is  often  clear,  but  it  is  often 
obscure.     For  example  : 

"Every  man  is  an  inlet  to  the  same  and  all  of  the  same." 
"Moons  are  no  more  bounds  to  spiritual  power  than  bat-balls." 

There  is  a  meaning  in  these  sentences  which  is  of  sufficient 
value  to  reward  the  effort  to  acquire  it,  yet  to  the  ordinary 
reader  they  are  obscure. 

Conciseness  is  often  conducive  to  perspicuity  where  a  synop- 
sis is  needed  of  some  previous  statement.  Here,  by  refreshing 
the  memory,  it  helps  to  clear  up  obscurities ;  but  at  the  same 
time  such  a  repetition  must  necessarily  be  brief 

Conciseness  does  not  furnish  the  best  means  for  rhetorical 
excellence,  though  there  are  many  concise  writers  who  are  by 
no  means  deficient  in  fondness  for  the  beauties  of  style.  In 
Bacon,  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  and  Emerson  may  be  found  great 
epigrammatic  point  and  brilliancy.  Yet  for  all  other  qualities 
of  style,  for  everything  like  richness  and  splendor  of  imagery, 
profusion  of  illustration,  amplitude  of  statement,  and  magnifi- 
cence and  variety  of  diction,  conciseness  does  not  afford  suffi- 
cient space. 

§  59.   DIFFUSENESS. 

Diffuseness  means  the  employment  of  a  liberal  number  of 
words  for  the  expression  of  our  ideas.  Where  it  is  held  in  check 
by  a  cultivated  taste  it  may  be  called  affluence  of  expression, 
and  it  is  a  characteristic  of  many  of  the  greatest  authors. 
Those  who  are  fond  of  the  beauties  of  style,  and  regard  rhetoric 
as  a  fine  art,  are  generally  diffiise;  they  take  delight  in  the 
rhythms  and  cadences  of  periods,  and  in  all  modes  of  embel- 
lishment; and  seek  to  express  their  thoughts  not  only  with 
clearness,  but  also  with  an  attractive  beauty.  When  to  afflu- 
ence of  expression  is  also  added  precision,  the  highest  perspi- 
cuity is  the  result.  As  examples  of  this,  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
mention  a  few  of  the  best-known  names  among  ancient  and 
modern  authors,  such  as  Xenophon,  Livy,  Clarendon,  Macau- 
lay.  When  these  are  compared  with  concise  writers — Xenoplion 
with  Thucydides,  Livy  with  Tacitus,  Macaulay  with  Hallam — 
the  truth  of  this  statement  will  be  manifest. 

Those  writers  who  are.  most  highly  rhetorical  are  most  dis- 
tinguished for  this  affluence  of  style.     Among  the  ancients 

D  2 


^6  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

Cicero  is  pre-eminent  In  English  literature  the  most  striking 
examples  are  Jeremy  Taylor,  Edmund  Burke,  and  Thomas  De 
Quincey. 

This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  passage  from  Ma- 
caulay : 

"In  truth  there  is  no  sadder  spot  on  earth  than  that  little  cemetery. 
Death  is  there  associated,  not  as  at  Westminster  Abbey  and  St.  Paul's,  with 
genius  and  virtue,  with  public  veneration  and  imperishable  renown  ;  not  as 
in  our  humblest  churches  and  churchyards,  with  everything  that  is  most 
endearing  in  social  and  domestic  charities ;  but  with  whatever  is  darkest  in 
human  nature  and  in  human  destiny — with  the  savage  triumph  of  implaca- 
ble enemies — with  the  inconstancy,  the  ingratitude,  the  cowardice  of  friends 
— with  all  the  miseries  of  fallen  greatness  and  of  blighted  fame.  Thither 
have  been  carried,  through  successive  ages,  by  the  rude  hands  of  jailers, 
without  one  mourner  following,  the  bleeding  relics  of  men  who  had  been 
the  captains  of  armies,  the  leaders  of  parties,  the  oracles  of  senates,  and  the 
ornaments  of  courts." 

In  this  passage  we  are  struck  by  the  great  variety  of  modes 
in  which  one  idea,  that  of  the  sadness  of  St.  Peter's  Chapel,  is 
presented  to  the  mind.  The  writer  seeks,  in  many  different 
directions,  for  points  of  contrast  with  his  main  theme,  and  his 
meaning  is  set  forth  with  great  richness  of  language  and  clear- 
ness of  illustration. 

Affluence  of  style  is  as  useful  in  expository  writing  as  in 
descriptive  and  narrative,  and  may  be  illustrated  by  the  fol- 
lowing passage,  in  which  Professor  Tyndall  speaks  of  the 
sun: 

••  Measured  by  our  largest  standards,  such  a  reservoir  of  power  is  infinite ; 
but  it  is  our  privilege  to  rise  above  these  standards,  and  to  regard  the  sun 
himself  as  a  speck  in  infinite  extension,  a  mere  drop  in  the  universal  sea. 
We  analyze  the  space  in  which  he  is  immersed,  and  which  is  the  vehicle 
of  his  power.  We  pass  to  other  systems  and  other  suns,  each  pouring  forth 
energy  like  our  own,  but  still  without  infringement  of  the  law  which  reveals 
immutability  in  the  midst  of  change,  which  recognizes  incessant  transference 
and  conversion,  but  neither  final  gain  nor  loss.  This  law  generalizes  the 
aphorism  of  Solomon  that  there  is  nothing  new  under  the  sun,  by  teaching 
us  to  detect  everywhere,  under  its  infinite  variety  of  appearances,  the  same 
primeval  force.  To  nature  nothing  can  be  added ;  from  nature  nothing  can 
be  talcen  away  ;  the  sum  of  her  energies  is  constant ;  and  the  utmost  man 
can  do  in  the  pursuit  of  physical  truth,  or  in  the  application  of  physical 
knowledge,  is  to  shift  the  conditions  of  the  never-varying  total,  and  out  of 
one  ot  them  to  form  another." 

Professor  Tyndall  is  one  of  those  scientific  writers  who  seek 


Perspicuity  in  Genet aL  Jj 

to  render  their  style  attractive  by  means  of  rhetorical  em- 
bellishment ;  nor  does  the  cultivation  of  the  art  of  expression 
detract  in  any  degree  from  the  accuracy  of  his  method.  In 
this  passage  the  reader  will  find  copiousness  of  thought, 
profusion  of  illustration,  and  affluence  of  language,  all  com- 
bining to  present  a  clear  and  vivid  impression  of  the  mean- 
ing. 

Diffuseness,  when  carried  too  far,  becomes  a  fault  in  stj-le, 
for  then  the  meaning  is  obscured  under  a  mass  of  unnecessary 
words.  Thus  the  very  affluence  of  language  and  the  rich  vo- 
cabulary which  are  an  advantage  at  the  outset,  from  the  want 
of  due  repression,  grow  at  last  to  be  an  evil  of  no  common 
magnitude. 

There  are  some  who  arc  naturally  gifted  with  great  fluency 
in  speaking  or  writing.  They  express  their  thoughts  with  so 
much  ease  and  fulness  that -they  never  think  of  examining  what 
they  have  written,  still  less  of  correcting  it.  This  self-compla- 
cency destroys  at  the  outset  all  that  nobler  effort  after  self-im- 
provement which  is  generally  born  of  discontent  or  self  distrust, 
and  terminates  in  a  confirmed  habit  of  carelessness  or  intel- 
lectual indolence.  Short  and  long  essays  and  short  and  long 
sermons  are  often  misjudged,  and  the  superficial  hearer  often 
supposes  that  the  longer  work  is  the  result  of  greater  labor.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  shorter  work  may  have  been  pro- 
duced by  laborious  and  painstaking  compression,  while  the 
longer  one  may  retain  its  original  length  out  of  the  mere  care- 
lessness of  the  writer.  It  is  plain  that,  under  such  circumstan- 
ces, the  former  will  be  far  clearer  and  more  satisfactory.  Among 
speakers,  that  one  is  most  intelligible  who  uses  words  liberally, 
but  is  precise  in  their  application ;  and  he  is  most  difficult 
to  follow  who  is  diffuse  without  precision,  and,  being  carried 
away  by  his  own  fluency,  hides  his  meaning  under  a  cloud  of 
words. 

Diffuseness,  when  carried  too  far,  may  be  considered  as  ver- 
bosity, and  among  its  characteristics  the  following  may  be  men- 
tioned as  the  most  striking :  first,  the  mention  of  unnecessary 
circumstances ;  secondly,  the  excessive  use  of  epithets ;  and, 
thirdly,  the  tedious  reiteration  of  the  same  thought  in  different 
words. 


yS  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

.     §  60.   REPETITION. 

Perspicuity  is  frequently  gained  or  increased  by  the  reitera- 
tion of  some  important  fact  or  statement.  In  scientific  works 
it  is  often  necessary  to  remind  the  reader  of  what  has  been  said 
before.  In  a  course  of  lectures,  each  one  will  often  be  advan- 
tageously begun  by  a  summary  of  the  subject-matter  of  the 
preceding.  In  sermons,  incessant  repetition  of  the  same 
idea  may  be  not  only  beneficial  but  necessary,  for  in  this 
way  any  important  point  is  sure  to  be  inopressed  upon  the 
mind.  Reiteration,  however,  has  to  do  not  only  with  clear- 
ness, but  with  emphasis,  and  will  come  up  again  for  fuller 
consideration. 

The  utility  of  repetition  is  shown  forth  very  forcibly  by  De 
Quincey : 

"  In  the  senate,  and  for  the  same  reason  in  a  newspaper,  it  is  a  virtue  to 
reiterate  your  meaning  ;  .  .  .  variation  of  the  words,  with  a  substantial  iden* 
tity  of  the  sense  and  dilution  of  the  truth,  is  oftentimes  a  necessity.  .  .  . 
Time  must  be  given  for  the  intellect  to  eddy  about  a  truth,  and  to  appro- 
priate its  bearings,  .  .  .  and  this  is  obtained  by  varying  the  modes  of  present- 
ing it — now  putting  it  directly  before  the  eye,  now  obliquely,  now  in  an  ab- 
stract shape,  now  in  the  concrete ;  all  which  being  the  proper  technical 
discipline  for  dealing  with  such  cases,  ought  no  longer  to  be  viewed  as  a 
licentious  mode  of  style,  but  as  the  just  style  in  respect  of  those  licentious 
circumstances.  And  the  true  art  for  such  popular  display  is — to  continue 
the  best  forms  for  appearing  to  say  something  new,  when  in  reality  you  are 
but  echoing  yourself;  to  break  up  massy  chords  into  running  vibrations, 
and  to  mask  by  slight  differences  in  the  manner  a  verbal  identity  in  the 
substance." 

The  following  is  an  example  of  repetition  in  the  form  of 
a  summary  of  the  subject-matter  of  a  previous  discourse. 
It  is  taken  from  the  second  Advent  lecture  of  the  Rev.  F.  W. 
Robertson : 

"  Last  Thursday  we  considered  the  effects  of  this  advent  in  Greece.  We 
found  the  central  principle  of  Grecian  life  to  be  worldliness.  The  Greek 
saw  and  sought  and  worshipped  nothing  higher  than  this  life,  but  only  this 
life  itself.  Hence  Greek  religion  degenerated  into  mere  taste,  which  is  per- 
ception of  the  beautiful.  The  result  on  character  was  threefold.  Restless- 
ness, which  sent  the  Greek  through  this  world  with  his  great  human  heart 
unsatisfied,  fickle  in  disposition,  and  ever  inquiring  with  insatiable  curiosity 
after  some  new  thing.  Licentiousness  ;  for  whosoever  attaches  his  heart  to 
the  outward  beauty,  without  worshipping  chiefly  in  it  that  moral  beauty  of 


Perspicuity  in  General.  79 

which  all  else  is  but  the  type  and  the  suggestion,  necessarily,  slowly  it  may 
be,  but  inevitably,  sinks  down  and  down  into  the  deepest  abyss  of  sensu^ 
existence.  Lastly — unbelief.  The  Greek,  seeing  principally  this  world,  lost 
his  hold  upon  the  next  For  the  law  of  faith  is  that  a  man  can  only  believe 
what  is  already  in  his  spirit.     He  believes  as  he  is." 

§  61.  DIGRESSION. 

Digression  is  a  departure  from  the  immediate  subject  for 
the  consideration  of  something  else.  It  bears  the  same 
relation  to  the  whole  work  which  the  parenthesis  bears  to 
the  sentence,  and,  like  the  parenthesis,  it  has  its  use  and  its 
abuse. 

The  proper  use  of  digression  may  be  stated  thus : 

First.  It  is  used  to  introduce  a  necessary  explanation. 

Secondly.  It  is  used  to  give  additional  emphasis  to  previous 
statements. 

There  are  two  chief  classes  of  digression — first,  narrative  or 
descriptive,  which  consists  of  anecdotes  for  illustration,  or  other 
similar  passages;  secondly,  the  discussion  of  some  point  which 
stands  in  close  relation  to  the  subject. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  the  use  of  digression  of  the 
narrative  kind,  which  also  serves  to  illustrate  the  subject: 

"The  hasty  multitude 
Admiring  entered,  and  the  work  some  praise 
And  some  the  architect ;   his  hand  was  known 
In  heaven  by  many  a  towered  structure  high. 


Nor  was  his  name  unheard  or  unadored 
In  ancient  Greece ;  and  in  the  Ausonian  land 
Men  called  him  Mulciber ;  and  how  he  fell 
From  heaven  they  fabled,  thrown  by  angry  Jove 
Sheer  o'er  the  crystal  battlements :  from  mom 
To  noon  he  fell,  from  noon  to  dewy  eve, 
A  summer's  day;  and  with  the  setting  sun 
Dropped  from  the  zenith  like  a  falling  star 
On  Lemnos,  the  itgean  isle ;  thus  they  relate 
Erring." — Milton. 

The  architect  of  Pandemonium  is  thus  ingeniously  identified 
with  Vulcan,  and  the  narration  of  the  classical  myth  presents 
the  mind  with  a  familiar  subject,  and  gives  greater  distinctness 
to  the  poet's  conception. 


8o  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

TTie  following  is  an  example  of  the  second  class  of  digres- 
sion, which  discusses  some  theme  in  close  connection  with  the 
subject.  This  serves  to  give  additional  emphasis  to  what  has 
been  said  : 

"Hail,  holy  light !  offspring  of  heaven  first-born. 
Or  of  the  eternal  co-eternal  beam. 

thee  I  revisit  safe. 
And  feel  thy  sov'ran  vitalness  ;  but  thou 
Revisitest  not  these  eyes,  that  roll  in  vain 
To  find  thy  piercing  ray,  and  find  no  dawn — 
So  thick  a  drop  serene  hath  quenched  their  orbs 
Or  dim  suff^usion  veiled.     Yet  not  the  more 
Cease  I  to  wander  where  the  Muses  haunt 
Clear  spring,  or  shady  grove,  or  sunny  hill, 
Smit  with  the  love  of  sacred  song. 

Thus  with  the  year 
Seasons  return  ;  but  not  to  me  returns 
Day,  or  the  swq^t  approach  of  even  or  mom, 
Or  sight  of  vernal  bloom,  or  summer's  rose. 
Or  flock,  or  herds,  or  human  face  divine ; 
But  cloud  instead,  and  ever-during  dark 
Surrounds  me." — Milton. 

The  poet  begins  with  an  invocation  to  light,  after  which  he 
makes  a  digression,  in  which  he  alludes  to  his  own  personal 
condition  and  feeling,  in  language  full  of  pathetic  beauty  ;  and 
by  the  contrast  betA^een  his  own  melancholy  darkness  and  the 
joy  of  heavenly  light,  he  gives  to  his  subject  a  greater  emphasis 
than  it  had  gained  even  from  the  sublime  opening  descrip- 
tion. 

De  Quincey  is  noted  for  his  frequent  digressions.  This 
arises  from  his  faulty  method,  and  his  lack  of  p^er  to  con- 
centrate his  thoughts  upon  one  leading  subject.  Sometimes, 
however,  his  digressions  are  most  apt  and  luminous ;  and  it 
must  be  confessed  that  even  when  he  wanders  away  too  far  he 
is  generally  sure  to  be  instructive  or  entertaining.  In  the  fol- 
lowing passage  the  digression  adds  much  to  the  force  of  the 
description : 

"  Entering  I  closed  the  door  so  softly  that,  although  it  opened  upon  a 
hall  which  ascended  through  all  the  stories,  no  echo  ran  along  the  silent 
walls.  Then  turning  around  I  sought  my  sister's  face.  But  the  bed  had 
been  moved,  and  the  back  was  now  turned.  Nothing  met  my  eyes  but  one 
large  window  wide  open,  through  which  the  sun  of  midsummer  at  noonday 


Perspicuity  in  General.  8i 

was  showering  down  torrents  of  splendor.  The  weather  was  dry,  the  sky 
was  cloudless,  the  blue  depths  seemed  to  express  types  of  infinity ;  and  it 
was  not  possible  for  eye  to  behold  or  for  heart  to  conceive  any  symbols 
more  pathetic  of  life  and  the  glory  of  life. 

"  Let  me  pause  for  one  instant  in  approaching  a  remembrance  so  affect- 
ing and  revolutionary  in  my  own  mind,  and  one  which  (if  any  earthly  remem- 
brance) will  survive  for  me  in  the  hour  of  death,  to  remind  some  readers 
and  to  inform  others  that  in  the  original  Opium  Confessions  I  endeavored 
to  explain  the  reason  why  death,  ceteris  paribus,  is  more  profoundly  affecting 
in  summer  than  in  other  parts  of  the  year ;  so  far  at  least  as  it  is  liable  to 
any  modification  at  all  from  accidents  of  scenery  or  season.  The  reason,  as 
I  there  suggested,  lies  in  the  antagonism  between  the  tropical  redundancy 
of  life  in  summer  and  the  dark  sterilities  of  the  grave." 

By  pausing  here  he  leaves  the  reader  confronted  by  a  most 
affecting  scene,  and  the  digression  is  made  to  a  kindred  theme 
which  serves  to  deepen  the  effect  of  what  he  has  previously 
written. 

The  improper  use  of  digressions  may  be  observed  under  the 
following  circumstances  : 

1.  When  the  writer  enters  upon  something  which  is  not  suf- 
ficiently connected  with  the  subject. 

2.  When  they  are  too  long. 

3.  When  they  are  too  frequent. 

De  Quincey  often  exhibits  these  faults. 

In  his  essay  on  Secret  Societies  he  makes  a  digression  to 
speak  of  a  certain  family,  which  is  quite  proper  in  its  way.  The 
fault  is  that  in  the  midst  of  this  he  suddenly  turns  aside  upon 
a  fresh  digression  : 

"  Among  these  families,  and  distinguished  among  them,  was  that  of  the 
Farrers.  The  name  of  their  patrimonial  estate  was  Little  Gedding,  and,  I 
think,  in  the  County  of  Hertford.  They  were  by  native  turn  of  mind  and 
by  accomplishments  a  most  interesting  family.  In  some  royal  houses  of 
Europe  it  was  once  a  custom  that  every  son,  if  not  every  daughter,  should 
learn  a  trade.  This  custom  subsisted  down  to  the  days  of  the  unhappy 
Louis  XVL,  who  was  a  locksmith,  and  I  was  once  assured  by  a  French- 
man who  knew  him  well,  not  so  bad  a  one,  considering  (you  know)  that  one 
cannot  be  as  rough  as  might  be  wished  in  scolding  a  locksmith  that  one  is 
obliged  to  address  as  *  your  majesty.'  A  majestic  locksmith  has  a  sort  of 
right  to  be  a  bad  one.  The  Farrers  adopted  this  custom,  and  most  of  them 
chose  the  trade  of  a  bookseller.  Why  this  was  a  good  trade  to  chose,  I  will 
explain  in  a  brief  digression.  It  is  a  reason  which  applies  only  to  three 
other  trades,  viz.,  to  coining,  to  printing  books,  and  to  making  gold  or  sil- 
ver plate.  And  the  reason  is  this — all  the  four  arts  stand  on  an  isthmus, 
connecting  them  on  one  side  with  merely  mechanic  arts,  on  the  other  with 


82  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

the  fine  arts.  This  was  the  marking  distinction  between  the  coinages  of 
ancient  classical  days  and  our  own.  Our  European  and  East  Indian  coins 
are  the  basest  of  all  base  products  from  rude  barbaresque  handicraft.  They 
are  imagined  by  the  man,  some  horrid  Cyclops,  who  conceived  the  great 
idea  of  a  horseshoe,  a  poker,  and  a  tenpenny  nail." 

In  the  first  place  this  subject  of  the  Farrers  family  consti- 
tutes a  digression  from  the  main  subject,  "secret  societies," 
and  from  this  a  second  digression  is  made  to  "  coining." 

§  62.    A    LOOSE   STYLE. 

Perspicuity  is  violated  by  a  loose  style  arising  from  confusion 
of  thought,  and  carelessness  in  the  choice  and  arrangement  of 
words.  This  is  characterized  by  lack  of  precision,  frequent 
repetitions,  and  the  presentation  of  topics  in  a  disconnected  or 
inconsequential  manner  ;  while  not  unfrequently  the  statements 
are  so  self-contradictory  as  to  have  a  ridiculous  effect.  In  the 
following  sentences  will  be  found  some  of  the  more  glaring  ex- 
amples of  looseness  of  style. 

A  speaker,  alluding  to  the  late  Vice-President  Wilson,  said  : 
*'  Here  was  a  man  who  never  struck  his  colors  till  he  had  se- 
cured a  victory."  A  newspaper,  noticing  a  death  from  drown- 
ing, says  "that  the  coroner  held  an  inquest  concerning  the 
death  of  Thomas  Shipp,  who  was  drowned  on  the  following 
night."  Another,  noticing  an  accident  to  a  trapeze  performer, 
says :  "  It  was  afterwards  discovered  that  the  boy's  collar- 
bone was  broken,  but  unfortunately  his  injuries  are  not  of  a 
dangerous  description."  A  third  says :  "  A  pony  carriage  was 
passing  along  New  Bond  Street,  Bath,  when  in  turning  into 
Northgate  Street  it  fell  down  and  broke  both  of  its  legs." 
Describing  a  steeple  -  chase,  the  Irish  Times  says  :  "  A  very 
nice  day's  sport  was  carried  on  over  an  excellent  course,  all 
grass,  over  the  lands  of  Mr.  Henderson,  whose  hospitality  was 
unbounded.  It  consisted  of  two  walls,  two  bank  drops,"a  water 
cut,  and  two  hurdles."  Recording  the  death  of  a  man  at  a 
riot,  a  Belfast  paper  says :  "  They  fired  two  shots  at  him,  the 
first  shot  killed  him,  but  the  second  shot  was  not  fatal."  An- 
other, speaking  of  a  deaf  man  who  was  run  down  by  a  train 
and  killed,  says :  "  He  was  injured  in  a  similar  way  two  years 
ago."  Another  speaks  of  the  Princess  Louise  as  going  to 
Wimbledon  to  witness  "the  shooting  of  her  husband."     An- 


Perspicuity  in  General.  83 

other  describes  the  second  son  of  the  Prince  of  Wales  as  "an 
amiable  boy,  like  his  mother;"  and  another  announces  that 
"the  Duke  of  Hamilton  will  shortly  take  to  wife  the  late  Lady 
Mary  Louisa  Elizabeth  Montagu." 

§  63.    PERSPICUITY    SOMETIMES    NOT  'AIMED   AT. 

Perspicuity  is  sometimes  not  aimed  at.  This  is  more  espe- 
cially the  case  in  some  kinds  of  oratory,  where  the  arts  of  con- 
cealment, suppression,  misunderstanding,  special  pleading,  or 
talking  apart  from  the  question,  may  be  made  use  of  to  an  ex- 
tent which  is  not  possible  in  books  that  are  intended  for  peru- 
sal. The  following  ate  the  chief  classes  of  oratory  in  which 
this  may  occur : 

1.  Where  the  orator  is  anxious  to  persuade,  but  is  unwilling 
or  unable  to  discuss  the  subject  directly,  and  therefore  seeks 
to  convey  a  general  impression,  which  will  be  favorable  to  his 
cause.  This  is  often  attempted  by  means  of  appeals,  more  or 
less  direct,  to  the  passions,  emotions,  or  prejudices  of  the  hear- 
ers. A  speaker  may  utter  nothing  that  is  clear  and  direct,  his 
speech  may  consist  of  mere  generalities,,  yet  he  may  succeed 
in  swaying  his  audience  and  in  gaining  his  point.  Although 
there  is  often  disingenuousness  in  this,  still  it  by  no  means 
follows  that  this  is  always  the  case.  Those  who  indulge  large- 
ly in  exhortations,  or  in  the  declamatory  style,  are  often  in- 
fluenced by  the  desire  not  so  much  to  speak  clearly,  as  to 
speak  in  such  a  way  that  the  general  impression  shall  be  in 
their  favor. 

2.  A  second  case  arises  where  the  orator  who  is  defending  a 
weak  cause  turns  from  open  and  direct  argument  to  the  re- 
finements of  special  pleading  ;  and  resorts  to  sophistry  and 
casuistry,  not  for  the  sake  of  enlightenment,  but  rather  for  the 
purpose  of  confounding  and  baffling  his  opponent. 

3.  A  third  case  is  found  in  that  kind  of  political  oratory 
which  is  known  as  "  talking  against  time."  This  is  a  definition 
which  expresses  its  character  with  sufficient  exactness. 

4.  There  are  also  certain  kinds  of  speeches  in  which  perspi- 
cuity is  of  comparatively  inferior  importance.  These  are  set 
orations  made  upon  occasions  of  state  or  ceremony,  compli- 
mentary addresses,  panegyrics,  and  all  such  as  have  a  conven- 
tional or  artificial  character.     Among  these  may  be  included 


84  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

"Fourth  of  July"  orations.  All  these  aim  to  be  splendid, 
showy,  and  ornate  in  the  highest  degree ;  and  have  the  same 
relation  to  other  branches  of  composition  as  that  which  is 
held  by  the  sumptuous  furniture  and  gaudy  ornaments  of  a 
hotel  or  theatre  to  the  tasteful  decoration  of  a  private  man- 
sion. 


PART   II. 

PERSUASIVENESS  IN   STYLE. 


CHAPTER   I. 
FIGURES    OF    SPEECH. 


r- 


§  64.   PERSUASIVENESS. — PRELIMINARY   REMARKS. 

Thus  far  our  attention  has  been  directed  to  perspicuity,  but 
it  is  evident  that  we  must  seek  for  something  very  different  if 
we  would  find  the  cause  of  the  persuasive  power  of  style.  In 
the  works  of  great  authors  we  perceive  many  things  which  arrest 
the  attention  and  retain  it.  The  imagination  is  stimulated  by 
certain  peculiarities  of  thought  and  expression;  and  hints  are 
given  that  raise  up  a  world  of  associated  ideas.  The  emotions 
also  are  excited ;  and  the  reader  is  moved  not  so  much  by  the 
subject  as  by  the  mode  of  its  presentation.  The  same  effect 
is  also  produced  even  upon  the  reason.  The  method  of  one 
author  may  be  faultless,  and  yet  quite  ineffective  from  dulness 
or  frigidity  of  treatment;  while  another,  with  similar  or  even 
inferior  arguments,  may  exhibit  such  attractiveness  of  language 
that  his  power  is  almost  irresistible. 

Style,  therefore,  is  capable  of  exhibiting  something  higher 
than  perspicuity,  and  of  exerting  a  strong  persuasive  power.  To 
attain  to  this  it  should  display  life,  vigor,  and  brilliancy.  It  is 
not  enough  that  it  show  a  mere  negative  freedom  from  defect; 
it  should  be  marked  by  an  attractive  power,  which  may  compel 
by  its  force  or  allure  by  its  graceful  charm.  It  is  this  that 
constitutes  the  chief  difference  between  a  good  style  and  a  bad 
one.  For  a  book  may  be  perfectly  intelligible ;  the  words  may 
be  well  chosen;  they  may  exhibit  precision,  purity,  and  unity; 


86  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

and  yet  it  may  be  unreadable  on  account  of  its  dulness.  Where 
this  is  the  case  the  style  is  bad.  Dulness  and  monotony  are 
worse  faults  than  obscurity,  when  obscurity  is  associated  with 
other  qualities  which  make  the  work  readable. 

This  vital  element  of  style  is  known  by  different  names,  no 
one  of  which  can  be  said  to  be  altogether  satisfactory.  By 
Campbell  it  is  called  "vivacity,"  and  by  Whately  "energy." 
Other  writers  speak  of  it  as  "  animation,"  "  elevation,"  "  attrac- 
tiveness," and  the  like.  The  celebrated  treatise  of  Lx)nginus, 
whose  Latin  title,  "  De  Sublimitate,"  has  been  translated  "  On 
the  Sublime,"  is  entitled  in  Greek  Trtpi  v;//oi;c,  which  may  be 
translated  "On  Elevation"  (that  is,  of  style).  It  treats  of 
many  things  which  have  no  connection  with  the  "  sublime,"  as 
we  understand  that  word ;  and  in  many  cases  refers  to  the  very 
quality  now  under  consideration.  Where  this  difference  exists 
as  to  the  application  of  a  fitting  term,  it  is  perhaps  better  to 
select  another  that  shall  accord  with  the  chief  end  of  rhetoric, 
of  which  this  quality  is  the  highest  exponent.  Now  the  ends 
of  rhetoric  are  to  instruct,  to  convince,  to  persuade,  and  to 
please ;  but  of  these  the  highest  and  most  characteristic  is  the 
aim  to  persuade.  Accordingly,  if  this  quality  be  called  "  per- 
suasiveness," the  rather  cumbrous  character  of  the  word  may 
be  excused  on  the  ground  of  its  appropriateness. 

§  65.  DEFINITION    OF   PERSUASIVENESS. 

Persuasiveness  in  style,  therefore,  comprehends  everything 
that  may  conduce  to  arouse  the  attention,  enforce  argument, 
'Stimulate  imagination,  and  excite  the  feelings. 
\  It  may  be  well  to  note  that  persuasiveness  and  also  perspi- 
cuity are  terms  that  have  a  twofold  application — the  one  to 
style,  and  the  other  to  method.  In  style  it  refers  to  the  mode 
of  expression,  in  method  to  the  arrangement  of  the  subject- 
matter;  and  to  one  who  bears  in  mind  this  distinction  be- 
tween the  two  there  need  be  no  cause  of  misapprehension  of 
meaning. 

§  66.  GENERAL  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  SUBJECT  OF  PERSUASIVENESS. 

The  subject  of  persuasiveness,  upon  which  we  are  about 
to  enter,  will  embrace  the  following  divisions:  I.  Figures  of 
Speech.     II.  Energy.     III.  Vivacity. 


/ 


Figures  of  Speech.  Sj 

§  67.    FIGURES   OF   SPEECH. 

The  first  subject  for  our  consideration  is  figures  of  speech. 

A  figure  is  a  form  of  speech  artfully  varied  from  the  com- 
mon usage. 

Figures  are  found  in  the  various  departments  of  language: 
j  in  logic,  grammar,  and  rhetoric.  In  grammar  there  are  fig- 
ures of  euphony,  prosody,  and  syntax;  in  rhetoric  there  are 
figures  of  style,  oratory,  and  emotion.  Our  present  concerr^  is 
with  figures  of  style,  which  are  also  called  figures  of  speech.  \ 

The  Greek  and  Roman  rhetoricians  carried  the  study  of 
figures  to  an  extent  which  has  been  considered  excessive,  not 
Bierely  in  modern  times,  but  in  ancient.  Cicero,  in  his  De 
/foratore,  and  elsewhere,  enumerates  many  of  the  most  minute 
/  character.  Under  this  head  he  includes  all  the  embellish- 
ments of  oratory,  and  makes  all  expressions  figurative  which 
j  /are  most  brilliant  and  most  effective  in  impressing  an  audience. 
Quintilian  is  opposed  to  the  multiplication  of  figures,  and  his 
words  are  worth  quoting.  "They  are,"  he  says,  "far  from 
being  so  numerous  as  many  writers  represent  them ;  for  all 
those  names  of  figures,  which  it  is  so  easy  for  the  Greeks  to 
invent,  have  no  influence  with  me.  First  of  all,  those  who  think 
that  there  are  as  many  figures  as  affections  of  the  mind  are 
to  be  utterly  disregarded ;  not  because  an  affection  of  the  mind 
is  not  a  certain  condition  of  it,  but  because  a  figure  is  not  a 
mere  expression  of  any  condition  of  mind  whatever.  ...  To 
testify  anger  or  grief  or  pity  or  fear  or  confidence  or  con- 
tempt is  not  to  use  a  figure ;  any  more  than  to  advise  or 
threaten  or  entreat  or  excuse."  These  remarks  are  so  full  of 
good  sense  that  they  must  commend  themselves  to  all.  Thus, 
in  the  case  of  the  emotions,  it  is  evidently  unnecessary  and 
illogical  to  set  down  as  figures  all  expressions  of  hate,  abhor- 
rence, contempt ;  of  menace  or  defiance ;  of  assertion  or  denial. 
If  this  were  followed  out,  figures  would  be  multiplied  indefinite- 
ly. The  same  remark  holds  good  with  regard  to  the  tactics 
and  artifices  of  oratory — explanation,  offer  of  proofs,  interrup- 
tion, confessions,  concessions,  and  the  like.  All  these,  though 
deserving  consideration,  need  scarcely  be  set  down  as  figures, 
but  may  rather  be  regarded  as  modes  of  presentation  of  argu- 
ments. 


88  Elements  of  R/ietoric. 

The  term  figure  of  speech  is  equivalent  to  form  of  expres- 
sion, with  a  restricted  and  technical  application.  It  means 
such  a  form  of  expression  as  shall  comply  with  the  following 
requisites : 

1.  It  is  purposely  and  artificially  varied  from  the  common 
usage. 

2.  It  is  used  with  sufficient  frequency  to  possess  marked  and 
definable  characteristics  of  its  own. 

3.  It  must  further  the  ends  of  rhetoric  by  tending  to  persuade 
or  please. 

If  this  test  be  applied  to  any  of  the  well-known  figures,  it 
will  be  found  to  hold  good.  Antithesis,  metaphor,  and  climax, 
for  instance,  are  all  artificial  forms;  they  all  have  strongly 
marked  characters ;  and  they  all  tend  to  promote  the  ends  of 
rhetoric. 

§  68.   IMPORTANCE   OF    FIGURES   OF   SPEECH. 

Figures  of  speech  are  of  such  importance  that  they  must 
always  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  every  treatise  on  style  or 
criticism. 

1.  Though  differing  in  special  character  or  effects,  they  all 
have  one  thing  in  common,  and  that  is,  they  contribute  beyond 
anything  else  to  the  embellishment  of  style.  Some  create  a 
picture  before  the  mind ;  others  gratify  the  sense  of  propor- 
tion; others  adorn  the  subject  by  contrasting  it  with  some 
other  which  is  like  or  unlike;  and  thus  in  various  ways  they 
appeal  to  the  aesthetical  sensibilities. 

2.  They  contribute  to  perspicuity,  by  the  power  which  many 
of  them  have  of  throwing  fresh  light  upon  a  subject  by  pre- 
senting it  in  a  new  and  unexpected  form.  This  is  especially 
the  case  with  comparison,  metaphor,  and  example,  and  many 
others  of  the  figures  of  relativity,  which  are  used  by  writers  who 
would  never  adopt  them  merely  for  ornament.  They  are  used 
to  illustrate  a  subject,  which  thus  gains  a  clearness  that  could 
be  given  in  no  other  way. 

3.  They  add  to  the  persuasiveness  of  style.  They  give  va- 
riety to  it,  by  enabling  the  author  to  change  his  form  of  expres- 
sion at  will.  Thus  a  perpetual  freshness  and  vivacity  is  the 
result,  together  with  an  attractive  brilliancy.  Old  thoughts, 
which  have  lost  their  force  through  familiarity,  may  thus  be 


Figures  of  Sp^ 

rendered  striking  by  assuming  a  novel 
have  all  the  force  of  an  original  statement. 

4.  In  the  whole  world  of  literature,  both  ancient  and  mod- 
ern, figures  of  speech  occupy  a  foremost  place.  The  Sacred 
Scriptures  abound  in  them,  because  the  Hebrew  mind  delight- 
ed in  Oriental  imagery.  Nowhere  can  be  found  such  an  im- 
mense number  of  figures  so  effectively  presented.  Antithesis 
and  parallel  embrace  all  the  poetry  and  no  little  of  the  prose 
of  both  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  A  place  only  less  prom- 
inent is  held  by  figures  in  the  literature  of  Greece  and  Rome. 
The  most  famous  passages  of  poetry — epic,  lyric,  and  dramatic 
— the  noblest  strains  of  eloquence,  the  most  vivid  descriptions, 
all  exhibit  their  presence  and  effective  force. 

Not  the  least  sign  of  their  power  may  be  perceived  in  the 
common  language  of  every-day  life.  Every  one  uses  exclama- 
tion, interrogation,  comparison,  metaphor,  hyperbole,  climax, 
vision ;  the  figures  of  amplification  and  extenuation  are  indis- 
pensable in  eager,  animated  conversation ;  so  also  are  itera- 
tion, emphasis,  periphrasis,  litotes.  All  these  and  many  more 
are  incessantly  used;  and  always  indicate  vivacity  or  energy. 
This  fact  shows  that  while  art  and  elaboration  can  make  the 
highest  use  of  figurative  language,  nature  also  resorts  to  it; 
and  as  nature  has  invented  it,  so  she  prompts  its  use  and 
shows  its  effectiveness. 

§  69.    TROPES. 

The  term  figurative  language  is  often  confounded  with 
"  tropes,"  as  being  equivalent.  There  is,  however,  a  distinc- 
tion between  the  two.  Figurative  language  is  a  generic  term, 
including  all  that  has  been  mentioned  above.  The  trope  is 
a  special  class  of  figures  of  speech,  which  in  some  systems 
of  classification  is  considered  by  itself. 

,  The  word  "  trope  "  is  derivable  from  rpeVw,  "  to  turn,"  and 
means  a  word  or  phrase  which  is  "turned"  from  its  literal 
meaning  to  another  and  a  different  one.  These  are  numer- 
ous, and  have  been  divided  into  various  kinds,  all  of  which  are 
characterized  by  the  use  of  words  in  what  is  called  a  *'  trop- 
ical "  sense,  that  is,  a  sense  different  from  the  primitive  and 
literal  usage. 

It  is  not  appropriate  here  to  enlarge  upon  the  importance 


go  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

of  tropes  from  a  philological  point  of  view  ;  but  it  may  be  said, 
in  passing,  that  language  owes  its  growth  and  development 
from  its  earlier  and  ruder  stages,  to  its  higher  and  more  refined 
ones,  more  to  this  source  than  to  any  other.  If  we  study  the 
history  of  language,  we  shall  find  its  growth  to  be  characterized 
in  this  way;  and  in  the  later  stages  we  shall  also  find  multi- 
tudes of  words  which,  however  worn  down  by  the  attrition  of 
ages,  still  bear  unmistakable  marks  of  their  lowly  origin. 
Thus  "  soul,"  in  Latin,  is  "  wind ;"  in  Greek,  the  same ;  in  He- 
brew, "  breath ;"  "  reason  "  is  derived  by  some  from  "  reor," 
"  reo,"  to  flow ;  "  consideration  "  means  to  fix  our  eyes  on 
"  the  stars ;"  "  deliberate,"  to  weigh  ;  "  cogitare,"  to  act  with 
mind.  In  Hebrew,  the  "  heart,"  "  liver,"  and  "  kidneys  "  are 
used  for  "  mind  "  and  "  understanding  ;"  "  nose  "  is  used  for 
"anger;"  "a  man  of  lips"  is  a  "babbler."  In  Greek,  "dia- 
phragm "  is  used  for  the  "  understanding ;"  "  breast,"  for 
"  courage  ;"  the  "  nostrils,"  for  "  contempt."  In  Latin,  "  nos- 
trils," for  "  taste  "  and  "  refinement ;"  "  nose,"  for  "  satire  ;" 
"  eyebrows,"  for  "  disdain  ;"  "  stomach,"  for  "  anger ;"  "  throat," 
for  "  gluttony."  Many  of  these  tropes  have  been  transferred 
to  English. 

Every  color  recalls  some  emblematic  meaning :  black— death, 
mourning,  misfortune ;  white — innocence,  candor,  festivity ;  rose- 
color — beauty  and  freshness  ;  purple — majesty  and  splendor: 
The  words  indicating  numbers  were  originally  names  bor- 
rowed from  natural  phenomena.  Every  part  of  the  body  has 
given  rise  by  a  trope  to  some  new  and  abstract  expression: 
the  head  of  a  department ;  the  members  of  a  society ;  the  arm 
of  the  law ;  the  hands  in  a  factory ;  the  body  politic ;  the  tail- 
end  of  a  procession  ;  ih^/oot  of  a  class  ;  to  take  sides ;  to  go 
back;  2i front  w\tWj  a  black/f^. 

Current  sayings  illustrate  the  same  thing.  The  Greeks 
characterized  human  follies  and  absurdities  by  such  phrases 
as  :  "  He  ploughs  the  air,"  or  the  "  sand  ;"  "  He  is  making 
clothes  for  fishes  ;"  "  He  catches  the  wind  with  a  net ;"  "  He 
roasts  snow  in  a  furnace ;"  "  He  holds  a  looking-glass  to  a 
mole;"  "  He  is  teaching  iron  to  swim;"  "  He  is  teaching  a  pig 
to  play  on  a  flute ;"  "He  seeks  wool  on  an  ass ;"  "He  washes 
the  Ethiopian." 

In  our  own  language  the  number  of  such  sayings  is  immense. 


Figures  of  Speech,  91 

They  enter  into  our  common  conversation ;  they  form  collo- 
quialisms ;  they  make  up  the  rich  vocabulary  of  slang. 

In  literature  the  trope  is  of  the  highest  importance ;  poetry 
lives  upon  it ;  prose  would  often  be  but  lifeless  without  it ;  nor 
is  any  style  so  cold,  bald,  and  prosaic  but  that  the  trope  may 
be  found  frequently  necessary  for  explanation  or  illustration. 

§  70.    VARIOUS   CLASSIFICATIONS   OF    FIGURES. 

Various  classifications  of  the  figures  of  speech  have  been 
adopted  by  the  different  writers  on  the  subject  The  most 
common  are  the  following  : 

A. —    I.  Figures  of  Arrangement 

II.  Figures  of  Conversion,  or  Tropes. 

B. —    I.  Figures  of  Analogy. 
II.  Figures  of  Substitution. 

III.  Figures  of  Construction. 

IV.  Epithetic  Figures. 

V.  Figures  resulting  from  the  impassioned  and  indirect  expression 
of  thought 

C. —    I.  Figures  which  add  beauty  to  language. 
II.  Figures  which  add  beauty  to  thought 

D. —    I.  Figures  addressed  to  the  intellect 
II.  Figures  which  affect  the  passions. 

E. —    I.  Figures  of  Imagination. 
II.  Figures  of  Intellect. 

III.  Coalescent  figures,  or  those  which  excite  at  once  the  imagination 
and  intellect 

F. —    I.  Figures  of  Sound. 
II.  Figures  of  Sense. 

G. —    I.  Figures  of  Similarity. 
II.  Figures  of  Opposition. 
III.  Figures  of  Substitution. 

H.—  I.  Figures  of  Intellect 

II.  Figures  of  Imagination. 

III.  Figures  of  Emotion. 

IV.  Epithetic  Figures, 

No  one  of  the  above  can  be  said  to  have  met  with  general 
adoption.  One  difficulty  will  always  be  felt  with  any  system 
of  classification,  and  that  is,  the  number  of  figures  which  seem 
equally  entitled  to  a  place  in  different  classes.  The  nature 
and  constitution  of  figures  is  such  that  they  must  intermingle 

E 


92  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

largely ;  and  there  will  always  be  a  gradual  shading  off  from 
one  to  another.  Hyperbole  and  climax  are  akin  to  amplifica- 
tion, but  almost  equally  so  to  those  figures  which  are  based 
upon  similarity.  The  figure  parallel  may  be  regarded  as  equal- 
ly related  to  antithesis  and  comparison.  All  tropes  have  so 
much  in  common  that  some  combine  them  into  a  class  by 
themselves;  while  others  blend  them  with  the  general  body 
of  figures,  and  break  them  up  into  different  classes. 

§  71.    THE   CLASSIFICATION   ADOPTED   IN    THIS   WORK. 

The  classification  adopted  here  is  one  which  is  founded  upon 
the  ends  or  aims  of  all  figures  of  speech.  If  we  regard  such 
ends  or  aims,  we  shall  find  that  they  all  tend  to  persuasiveness 
in  the  following  ways.     All  figures  of  speech  are  used  : 

1.  To  present  a  subject  with  greater  clearness  and  illustra- 
tion. 

2.  To  present  a  subject  with  increased  importance. 

3.  To  present  a  subject  with  unusual  emphasis. 

I.  When  the  aim  is  clearness  and  illustration.  Here  the 
subject  is  regarded  as  standing  in  some  definite  relation  to 
some  other  subject,  viz.,  the  relation  of  contrast,  or  similarity, 
or  contiguity.  By  thus  considering  a  thing  in  association  with 
something  else,  there  arises  greater  distinctness  of  view,  and  a 
clearer  perception  of  its  true  character.  The  figures  which  are 
formed  upon  this  basis  may  be  called  figures  of  relativity. 
'  2.  When  the  aim  is  to  present  'a  subject  with  increased  im- 
portance. Here  the  subject  is  brought  before  the  mind  with 
enlarged  dimensions,  so  that  it  may  receive  greater  considera- 
tion. At  the  same  time  other  different  or  opposing  subjects 
may  be  depreciated  ;  but  the  augmentation  of  the  one,  or  the 
diminution  of  the  other,  all  tend  to  produce  the  same  result. 
These  may  be  called  figures  of  gradation. 

3.  When  the  aim  is  to  present  a  subject  with  unusual  em- 
phasis. Here  the  subject  is  brought  before  the  mind  with  the 
greatest  possible  strength  and  energy,  so  that  by  its  own  force 
it  may  produce  the  desired  effect.  These  may  be  called  figures 
of  emphasis. 


Figures  of  Relativity.  93 


V^, 


CHAPTER  II. 

FIGURES  OF  RELATIVITY  ARISING  FROM  THE  IDEA  OF 
CONTRAST. 

§   72.    FIGURES   OF    RELATIVITY, — GENERAL    DIVISIONS. 

Figures  of  relativity  include,  first,  those  which  arise  from  the 
idea  of  contrast;  secondly,  those  which  arise  from  the  idea  of 
similarity  ;  and,  thirdly,  those  which  arise  from  the  idea  of 
contiguity. 

§  73.    FIGURES   WHICH   ARISE    FROM   THE    IDEA   OF   CONTRAST. 

Of  these  we  have  first  to  consider  those  which  arise  from 
the  idea  of  contrast,  which  consist  chiefly  of  the  figures  of 
antithesis. 

§  74.    ANTITHESIS   DEFINED   AND   ILLUSTRATED. 

By  antithesis  is  meant  the  comparison  of  different  things. 
-This  is  a  figure  which  possesses  great  energy  and  versatility, 
and  owes  its  power  to  the  effect  of  contrast. 

The  following  description  of  the  varied  powers  of  the  steam- 
engine  may  be  taken  as  a  general  example  of  antithesis  : 

"It  can  engrave  a  seal,  and  crush  masses  of  obdurate  metal ;  draw  out, 
without  breaking,  a  thread  as  fine  as  gossamer,  and  lift  a  ship-of-war  like  a 
bauble  in  the  air.  It  can  embroider  muslin,  and  forge  anchors ;  cut  steel 
into  ribbons,  and  impel  loaded  vessels  against  the  fury  of  winds  and 
waves." 

In  this  passage  extreme  delicacy  of  action  is  contrasted  with 
gigantic  effort,  and  our  conception  of  the  manifold  capacity  of 
the  steam-engine  is  made  at  once  stronger  and  clearer. 

With  antithesis,  the  figure  called  parallel  is  perfectly  identi- 
cal in  form,  but  different  in  sentiment;  for  while  antithesis  is 
the  comparison  of  dissimilar  things,  parallel  is  the  comparison 
of  similar  things. 

Antithesis  is  founded  upon  a  deep  principle  of  human  nat- 


94  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

ure,  by  which  it  is  led  to  feel  more  strongly  the  force  of  things 
while  regarding  them  in  contrast  with  one  another.  Everything 
is  most  truly  estimated  by  being  contemplated  in  reference  to 
its  opposite.  In  morals,  we  best  appreciate  virtue  by  contrast- 
ing it  with  vice;  valor,  with  cowardice;  pity,  with  ruthlessness. 
In  art,  the  force  of  contrast  is  always  felt ;  the  divine  face  of 
the  Saviour  is  most  effective  when  contrasted  with  the  fiendish 
lineaments  of  his  reviler  in  the  Ecce  Homo  ;  the  pyramid  must 
have  a  man  at  its  base  to  reveal  its  vastness.  Thus,  in  litera- 
ture, words,  which  are  the  names  of  things,  are  as  effective  by 
contrast  as  the  things  themselves. 

§  75.    UTILITY    OF   ANTITHESIS. 

The  utility  of  antithesis  to  the  writer  is  manifest  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons : 

1.  Because  his  ideas  may  be  conveyed  most  vividly  by  the 
force  of  contrasted  expression. 

2.  Because  important  words  in  this  way  receive  the  strongest 
possible  emphasis. 

3.  He  is  trained  by  the  use  of  antithesis  to  great  discrimina- 
tion in  the  choice  of  words. 

Its  effect  upon  the  reader  is  manifest : 

1.  Because  it  makes  the  strongest  impression  at  the  time. 

2.  It  is  most  easily  apprehended  and  committed  to  mem- 
ory. 

3.  It  is  retained  longest  by  the  memory. 

Antithesis  has  always  been  a  potent  force  in  literature.  All 
the  poetry  of  the  Hebrews  was  written  in  this  form ;  for  this 
was  their  only  versification.  In  other  literatures  we  find  it  oc- 
cupying a  commanding  position  in  ancient  and  modern  times, 
and  used  by  men  of  the  highest  order  of  genius.  Among  Greek 
prose  writers  it  is  largely  employed  by  Thucydides  ;  among  the 
Romans  by  Tacitus.  French  writers  have  used  it  to  a  degree 
that  has  been  considered  reprehensible,  and,  in  fact,  it  is  the 
leading  characteristic  of  French  prose.  Among  English  authors 
it  has  been  employed  by  the  wisest  and  profoundest  thinkers. 
Lord  Bacon,  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  and  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson 
are  distinguished  by  the  great  and  even  the  excessive  use  of  this 
figure.     An  example  is  given  from  each  of  these  : 

"  Read  not  to  contradict  and  confute,  nor  to  believe  and  take  for  granted, 


Figures  of  Relativity.  95 

nor  to  find  talk  and  discourse,  but  to  weigh  and  consider.  Some  books  are 
to  be  tasted,  others  to  be  swallowed,  and  some  few  to  be  chewed  and  di- 
gested ;  that  is,  some  books  are  to  be  read  only  in  parts ;  others  to  be  read, 
but  not  curiously  ;  and  some  few  to  be  read  wholly,  and  with  diligence  and 
attention.  Some  books,  also,  may  be  read  by  deputy,  and  extracts  made  of 
them  by  others  ;  but  that  would  be  only  in  the  less  important  arguments, 
and  the  meaner  sort  of  books  ;  else  distilled  books  are  like  common  distilled 
waters — flashy  things." — Lord  Bacon. 

"  Thus  there  are  two  books  from  whence  I  collect  my  divinity.  Besides 
that  written  one  of  God,  another  of  his  servant,  nature — that  universal  and 
public  manuscript  that  lies  expansed  unto  the  eyes  of  all.  Those  that  never 
saw  him  in  the  one  have  discovered  him  in  the  other :  this  was  the  Scrip- 
ture and  theology  of  the  heathens  ;  the  natural  motion  of  the  sun  made  them 
more  admire  him  than  its  supernatural  station  did  the  children  of  Israel. 
The  ordinary  effects  of  nature  wrought  more  admiration  in  them  than  in  the 
other  all  his  miracles." — Sir  Thomas  Browne. 

"  Our  strength  grows  out  of  our  weakness.  Not  until  we  are  pricked  and 
stung  and  sorely  shot  at  awakens  the  indignation  which  arms  itself  with  se- 
cret forces.  A  great  man  is  always  willing  to  be  little.  While  he  sits  on 
the  cushion  of  advantages  he  goes  to  sleep.  When  he  is  pushed,  tormented, 
defeated,  he  has  a  chance  to  learn  something  ;  he  has  been  put  on  his  wits, 
on  his  manhood  ;  he  has  gained  facts ;  learns  his  ignorance ;  is  cured  oF 
the  insanity  of  conceit,  has  got  moderation  and  real  skill.  The  wise  man 
always  throws  himself  on  the  side  of  his  assailants.  It  is  more  his  interest 
than  it  is  theirs  to  find  his  weak  point.  The  wound  cicatrizes,  and  falls  off 
from  him  like  a  dead  skin  ;  and  when  they  would  triumph,  lo  !  he  has  passed 
on  invulnerable." — R.  W.  Emerson. 

§   76.  EFFECTIVENESS  OF  ANTITHESIS  IN  VARIOUS  DEPARTMENTS 
OF   LITERATURE. 

There  is  scarcely  any  department  of  literature  in  which  an- 
tithesis is  not  effective,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
summary. 

I.  Proverbs. 

A  striking  proof  of  the  power  and  popularity  of  antithesis  is 
seen  in  the  fact  that  proverbs  so  frequently  assume  this  form. 
It  is  essential  that  the  proverb  be  quickly  grasped  by  the 
memory,  and  long  retained.  Various  other  aids  are  sought, 
such  as  rhyme,  alliteration,  etc. ;  but  none  are  so  common  as 
antithesis.  This  may  be  seen  from  the  following  examples : 
"Vox  populi,  vox  Dei."  "Man  proposes,  God  disposes." 
"Forewarned,  forearmed."  "Out  of  sight,  out  of  mind." 
"Penny  wise,  pound  foolish."  "A  bird  in  the  hand  is  worth 
two  in  the  bush."  All  the  proverbs  of  Solomon,  and  the  ma- 
jority of  all  others,  are  antithetical  in  their  form. 


96  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

2.  Maxims,  apophthegms,  current  sayings,  mottoes,  etc. 
Here,  as  with  proverbs,  there  is  need  of  brevity,  emphasis,  and 

something  that  shall  strike  the  mind  and  cleave  to  the  memory. 
This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  maxims  of  Rochefoucauld ;  the 
apophthegms  of  Bacon ;  sayings,  such  as,  "Victor)'  or  death." 
"  A  peerage  or  Westminster  Abbey."  "  The  Guard  dies,  it  never 
surrenders."  Mottoes,  such  as,  "  E  pluribus  unum."  "The 
blood  of  martyrs  is  the  seed  of  the  Church." 

3.  Dialogues. 

This  is  constantly  seen  in  the  Greek  tragedies,  where  the 
dialogue  is  largely  antithetical.  The  story  of  Leonidas  at  Ther- 
mopylae contains  an  antithetical  dialogue  full  of  immortal  force, 
which  may  be  reduced  to  the  following  form  : 

**  Deliver  up  your  arms  ! — Come  and  take  them." 

"  Our  arrows  darken  the  sun. — Then  we  will  fight  in  the  shade." 

"  You  will  all  be  slain. — Then  to-night  we  will  sup  with  Pluto." 

4.  Antithesis  is  invaluable  to  precision,  and  for  the  sake  of 
making  nice  distinctions : 

"  He  can  bribe,  but  he  cannot  seduce.  He  can  buy,  but  he  cannot  gain. 
He  can  lie,  but  he  cannot  deceive.  It  is  the  very  struggle  of  the  noble 
Othello.  His  heart  relents,  but  his  hand  is  firm.  He  does  naught  in  hate, 
but  all  in  honor.  He  kisses  the  beautiful  deceiver  before  he  destroys  her." 
— Macaulay. 

"  I  do  not  live  that  I  may  eat ;  but  I  eat  that  I  may  live." 

5.  For  this  reason  it  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  portrayal 
of  character : 

"  The  Puritan  was  made  up  of  two  different  characters  :  the  one  all  self- 
abasement,  penitence,  gratitude,  passion  ;  the  other  proud,  calm,  inflexible, 
sagacious.  He  prostrated  himself  in  the  dust  before  his  Maker,  but  he  set 
his  foot  on  the  neck  of  his  king." — Macaulay. 

"  Stiff  in  opinions,  always  in  the  wrong. 
Was  everything  by  starts,  and  nothing  long; 
But  in  the  course  of  one  revolving  moon 
Was  chemist,  fiddler,  statesman,  and  buffoon. 
Railing  and  praising  were  his  usual  themes ; 
And,  both  to  show  his  judgment  in  extremes. 
So  over-violent  or  over-civil. 
That  every  man  with  him  was  God  or  devil. 
In  squandering  wealth  was  his  peculiar  art, 
Nothing  went  unrewarded  but  desert. 


Figures  of  Relativity.  97 

Beggared  by  fools,  whom  still  he  found  too  late, 

He  had  his  jest,  and  they  had  his  estate." — Dryden. 

"Should  such  a  man,  too  fond  to  rule  alone. 
Bear,  like  the  Turk,  no  brother  near  the  throne, 
View  him  with  scornful,  yet  with  jealous  eyes. 
And  hate  the  arts  that  caused  himself  to  rise; 
Damn  with  faint  praise,  assent  with  civil  leer, 
And  without  sneering  teach  the  rest  to  sneer ; 
Willing  to  wound,  and  yet  afraid  to  strike, 
Just  hint  a  fault,  and  hesitate  dislike. 
A  timorous  foe,  by  flatterers  besieged, 
And  so  obliging  that  he  ne'er  obliged." — Pope. 

6.  Lofty  and  serious  themes : 

"  Go,  tell  the  court  it  glows 

And  shines  like  rotten  wood. 
Go,  tell  the  church  it  shows 

What's  good,  and  doth  no  good. 
If  church  and  court  reply, 
Then  give  them  both  the  lie. 

"Tell  zeal  it  lacks  devotion. 

Tell  love  it  is  but  lust. 
Tell  time  it  is  but  motion. 

Tell  flesh  it  is  but  dust 
And  wish  them  not  reply, 
For  th6u  must  give  the  lie." — Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

"  All  are  but  parts  of  one  stupendous  whole. 
Whose  body  Nature  is,  and  God  the  soul ; 
That,  changed  through  all,  and  yet  through  all  the  same, 
Great  in  the  earth  as  in  the  ethereal  frame ; 
Warms  in  the  sun,  refreshes  in  the  breeze. 
Glows  in  the  stars,  and  blossoms  in  the  trees  ; 
Lives  through  all  life,  extends  through  all  extent. 
Spreads  undivided,  operates  unspent ; 
Breathes  in  our  soul,  informs  our  mortal  part, 
As  full,  as  perfect,  in  a  hair  as  heart ; 
As  full,  as  perfect,  in  vile  man  that  mourns. 
As  the  rapt  seraph  that  adores  and  burns : 
To  Him  no  high,  no  low,  no  great,  no  small ; 
He  fills,  he  bounds,  connects,  and  equals  all." — Pope. 

7.  The  sublime.     Hebrew  poetry  is  full  of  passages  which 
illustrate  this.     The  following  is  from  Habakkuk  : 

"God  came  firom  Teman,  and  the  Holy  One  from  Mount  Paran. 
His  glory  covered  the  heavens,  and  the  earth  was  full  of  his  praise. 


^8  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

He  stood,  and  measured  the  earth  : 

He  beheld,  and  drove  asunder  the  nations ; 

The  everlasting  mountains  were  scattered. 

The  perpetual  hills  did  bow: 

His  ways  are  everlasting. 

The  mountains  saw  thee,  and  they  trembled : 
The  overflowing  of  the  water  passed  by : 
The  deep  uttered  his  voice, 
And  lifted  up  his  hands  on  high." 

8.  The  pathetic : 

"Our  very  hopes  belied  our  fears, 
Our  fears  our  hopes  belied ; 
We  thought  her  dying  when  she  slept, 
And  sleeping  when  she  died. 

"For  when  the  mom  came  dim  and  sad. 
And  chill  with  early  showers. 
Her  quiet  eyelids  closed — she  had 
Another  morn  than  ours." — Thomas  Hood. 

9.  Wit  and  humor. 

The  application  of  antithesis  to  the  purposes  of  wit  is  so 
general  that  some  have  considered  this  figure  one  of  its  con- 
stituent elements.  "  To  extirpate  antithesis  from  literature  al- 
together," says  a  writer,  "  would  be  to  destroy  at  one  stroke 
about  eight  tenths  of  all  the  wit,  ancient  and  modern,  now  ex- 
isting in  the  world." 

10.  The  epigram. 

A  large  proportion  of  epigrams  are  made  up  by  means  of 
antithesis.     This  will  be  fully  discussed  under  its  own  head. 

§  77.    ANTITHESIS   COMPARED  WITH    PLAIN   STATEMENT. 

The  force  of  antithesis  can  be  well  tested  by  taking  any  pas- 
sage of  literature  and  writing  it  in  the  antithetical  form  and  in 
the  common  style  for  the  sake  of  comparison. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  this  : 

"  Prosperity  in  a  virtuous  man  creates  self-restraint ;  it  is  mentioned  as  a 
blessing  in  the  Old  Testament,  yet  even  there  it  is  associated  with  many  fears 
and  distastes.  Adversity,  on  the  other  hand,  produces  fortitude  in  a  virtu- 
ous man ;  it  is  spoken  of  as  a  blessing  in  the  New  Testament,  and  always 
has  many  comforts  and  hopes." 

"  The  virtue  of  prosperity  is  temperance,  the  virtue  of  adversity  is  forti- 
tude.    Prosperity  is  the  blessing  of  the  Old  Testament     Adversity  is  the 


Figures  of  Relativity.  99 

blessing  of  the  New.    The  one  is  not  without  many  fears  and  distastes,  the 
other  is  not  without  comforts  and  hopes." — Bacon. 

§   78.    VARIOUS    FORMS   OF   ANTITHESIS. 

Antithesis  assumes  a  number  of  specific  forms  which  were 
all  carefully  classified  and  defined  by  the  old  rhetoricians. 
Although  these  are  not  often  mentioned  by  name  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  the  consideration  of  them  is  of  value,  as  showing  the 
various  manifestations  of  this  important  figure. 

§   79.    ANTIMETABOLE. 

The  order  of  the  words  is  reversed  in  each  member  of  the 
antithesis.     This  is  called  "  antimetabole  :" 

"  Be  wisely  worldly,  but  not  worldly  wise." — Quarles. 
"  A  wit  with  dunces,  and  a  dunce  with  wits." — Pope. 
"'Twas  sad  by  fits,  by  starts  'twas  wild." — Collins. 
*•  He  best  can  paint  them  who  can  feel  them  most." — Pope. 

"Where  ignorance  is  bliss, 
'Tis  folly  to  be  wise."— Gray. 

"  Beautiful  as  sweet  1 
And  young  as  beautiful !  and  soft  as  young  I 
And  gay  as  soft  1  and  innocent  as  gay  1" — Young, 

§  80.    PARADIASTOLE. 

Things  which  are  similar,  or  have  something  in  common, 
are  set  in  opposition  and  distinguished  from  one  another. 
This  is  called  "paradiastole  :" 

"Life  only  avails,  not  the  having  lived." — Emerson. 

"  Eye  for  an  eye,  a  tooth  for  a  tooth,  blood  for  blood,  measure  for  meas- 
ure. Give,  and  it  shall  be  given.  He  that  watereth,  shall  be  watered  him- 
self." 

§  81.   SYNCECEOSIS,  OR   ENANTIOSIS. 

Things  of  an  opposite  or  different  nature  are  contrasted 
with   one   another.     This   is   called  "  synceceosis,"  and  also 
'  "enantiosis :" 

"  Polarity,  or  action  and  reaction,  we  meet  in  every  part  of  nature,  in 
darkness  and  light,  in  heat  and  cold,  in  the  ebb  and  flow  of  waters,  in  male 
and  female,  in  the  inspiration  and  expiration  of  plants  and  animals,  in  the 
systole  and  diastole  of  the  heart." — Emerson. 

"Every  sweet  has  its  sour,  every  evil  its  good." — Emerson. 

E2 


lOO  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

"  Opinions  may  make  a  man  a  heretic,  but  that  they  make  a  traitor  I  have 
never  heard  till  now." — Earl  of  Strafford. 

"  My  hold  on  the  colonies  is  the  close  affection  which  grows  from  common 
names,  from  kindred  blood,  from  similar  privileges,  and  equal  protection. 
These  are  ties  which,  though  light  as  air,  yet  are  strong  as  links  of  iron." — 
Burke. 

"  To  a  shape  like  this,  so  small  yet  so  comprehensive,  so  slight  yet 
so  lasting,  so  insignificant  yet  so  venerable,  turns  the  mighty  activity  of 
Homer,  and  so  turning  is  enabled  to  live  and  warm  us  forever." — Leigh 
Hunt. 

*'  High  interest,  bad  security." — Duke  of  Wellington. 

"But  thousands  die  without  or  this  or  that. 
Die,  and  endow  a  college  or  a  cat." — PoPK. 

§  82.   OXYMORON. 

There  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  antithesis  which  arises  from  the 
opposition  of  two  contradictory  terms.  To  this  the  name  "oxy- 
moron" is  given,  by  which  is  meant  the  saying  of  that  which  ap- 
pears foolish,  but  yet  is  wise.  It  unites  words  of  contrary  sig- 
nification, and  produces  a  seeming  contradiction  : 

"A  howling  wilderness." 

"  A  pious  fraud." 

"  Travelling  is  a  fool's  paradise." — Emerson. 

*'  He  carries  ruins  to  ruins." — Emerson. 

"The  borrower  runs  in  his  own  debt" — Emerson. 

"Take,  O  take  those  lips  away. 
Which  so  sweetly  were  forsworn." — SHAKESPEARE. 

"  How  poor,  how  rich,  how  abject,  how  august, 
How  complicate,  how  wonderful  is  man, 
An  heir  of  glory,  a  frail  child  of  dust 
Helpless  immortal,  insect  infinite, 
A  worm  or  God.     I  tremble  at  myself. 
O  what  a  miracle  is  man  to  man  ; 
Triumphantly  distressed,  what  joy,  what  dread, 
Alternately  transported  and  alarmed." — Edward  Young. 

"  Poor  rich  man,  he  can  hardly  know  anything  of  industry  in  its  exertions, 
or  can  estimate  its  compensations  when  work  is  done." — Burke. 
"  O  illustrious  disgrace  !     O  victorious  defeat !" — Burke. 

§  83.    PARISON,  ISOCOLON. 

Sometimes  antithetical  clauses  of  similar  construction  follow 
in  a  series.  This  is  called  "parison,"  and  also  "  isocolon."  Here 
word  is  contrasted  with  word,  and  clause  with  clause,  and  the 


Figures  of  Relativity.  loi 

force  of  the  contrast  is  marked ;  but  the  figure  is  too  elaborate 
for  ordinary  prose  of  the  present  day. 

"  Homer  was  the  greater  genius,  Virgil  the  better  artist.  In  the  one  we 
most  admire  the  man,  in  the  other  the  work.  Homer  hurries  us  with  a 
commanding  impetuosity,  Virgil  leads  us  with  an  attractive  majesty.  Homer 
scatters  with  a  generous  profusion,  Virgil  bestows  with  a  careful  magnifi- 
cence. Homer,  like  the  Nile,  pours  out  his  riches  with  a  boundless  over- 
flow, Virgil,  like  a  river  in  its  banks,  with  a  gentle  and  constant  stream." — 
Pope. 

Here  the  clauses  are  all  arranged  in  couplets;  and  each 
clause  of  each  couplet  is  formed  in  exactly  the  same  manner, 
so  that  substantive  is  balanced  against  substantive,  verb  against 
verb,  adjective  against  adjective. 

"  Reading  maketh  a  full  man,  conference  a  ready  man,  and  writing  an  ex- 
act man  ;  and  therefore  if  a  man  write  little,  he  had  need  have  a  great 
memory  ;  if  he  confer  little,  he  had  need  have  a  present  wit ;  and  if  he  read 
little,  he  had  need  have  much  cunning  to  seem  to  know  that  he  doth  not. 
Histories  make  men  wise ;  poets  witty ;  the  mathematics  subtle ;  natural 
philosophy  deep;  moral  grave;  logic  and  rhetoric  able  to  contend." — 
Bacon. 

Here  the  first  three  clauses  are  alike,  word  corresponds  with 
word,  and  then  follow  three  more  similar  clauses.  In  the  sec- 
ond sentence  are  six  clauses,  all  corresponding  word  for  word. 

§  84.    PROSAPODOSIS. 

Another  kind  is  found  in  sentences  where  the  statement  of 
a  thing  is  followed  by  the  antithesis  of  its  cause.  This  is  call- 
ed "  prosapodosis :" 

"  Neither  do  I  dread  him  as  an  accuser,  inasmuch  as  I  am  innocent ;  nor 
do  I  fear  him  as  a  competitor,  since  I  am  Antonius ;  nor  do  I  expect  any- 
thing from  him  as  consul,  since  he  is  Cicero." — Quoted  by  Quintilian. 

"  It  is  better  to  command  no  one  than  to  be  a  slave  to  any  one ;  for  we 
may  live  honorably  with  command,  but  in  slavery  there  is  no  endurance  of 
life." — Quoted  by  Quintilian. 

"  Judge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged ;  for  with  what  judgment  ye  judge,  ye 
shall  be  judged ;  and  with  what  measure  ye  mete,  it  shall  be  measured  to 
you  again," 


I02  Elefnents  of  RJietoric, 


CHAPTER  III. 

FIGURES  OF  RELATIVITY  ARISING  FROM  THE   PERCEP- 
TION OF  RESEMBLANCE. 

§  85.    FIGURES    WHICH    ARISE    FROM    THE    PERCEPTION    OF 
RESEMBLANCE. 

The  perception  of  resemblance  is  a  fruitful  source  of  figures. 
The  power  of  like  to  suggest  like  is  inherent  in  the  human 
mind;  and  it  is  a  universal  fashion  to  explain  one  thing  by 
means  of  some  other  thing  which  it  resembles.  The  figures 
based  upon  this  include,  among  others,  comparison  and  meta- 
phor, which  are  the  most  widely  used,  the  most  effective,  and 
the  most  important  of  all;  and  which  have  an  influence  out- 
side of  literature  altogether,  affecting  common  life,  social  inter- 
course, and  the  growth  and  development  of  language. 

§  86.    PARALLEL. 

This  is  similar  to  antithesis  in  form,  but  different  in  charac- 
ter; for  while  antithesis  is  the  comparison  of  different  things, 
parallel  is  the  comparison  of  similar  things. 

In  antithesis  we  have  the  effect  which  is  produced  by  con- 
trast ;  in  parallel  we  have  the  effect  which  is  produced  by  re- 
semblance. But  the  true  force  of  parallel  consists  in  this,  that 
it  is  generally  the  repetition  of  a  statement.  Sometimes  it  is 
associated  with  the  accumulative  figures,  as  when  a  series  of 
similar  things  are  mentioned  with  cumulative  effect;  and  some- 
times it  is  associated  with  the  iterative  figures,  as  when  a 
thought  is  repeated  with  additional  emphasis. 

The  most  conspicuous  example  of  the  use  of  parallel  is  found 
in  the  poetry  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  The  Hebrews  did  not 
make  use  of  any  kind  of  metre;  their  versification  was  nothing 
more  than  the  figure  parallel,  with  which  antithesis  was  also 
joined.     This  peculiar  kind  of  versification  is  called  parallel- 


Figures  of  Relativity.  103 

ism.     This  figure  is  found  in  many  forms,  from  the  simplest  up 
to  the  most  complicated. 

"  Lord,  who  shall  abide  in  thy  tabernacle, 
Who  shall  walk  on  thy  holy  hill." 

This  is  the  simplest  form  of  parallel.  Here  the  sentiment 
of  the  first  line  is  repe'ated  in  the  second. 

"  The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God, 
And  the  firmament  showeth  his  handy-work. 
Day  unto  day  uttereth  speech. 
And  night  unto  night  showeth  knowledge." 

Antithesis  and  parallel  are  visible  throughout  the  New  Tes- 
tament also.  The  Sermon  on  the  Mount  presents  one  long 
series  of  these  figures.  The  parallelism  may  also  be  found  in 
the  canticles  of  St.  Luke,  and  the  songs  of  the  Apocalypse. 

In  English  literature  it  is  frequent,  though  far  less  so  than  the 

antithesis  :  ..  ^  .     .  .u  .  •  u 

**  O  joy  !   that  m  our  embers 

Is  something  that  doth  live. 

That  nature  yet  remembers 

What  was  so  fugitive."— Wordsworth. 

The  sentiment  expressed  in  the  first  and  second  of  these 
lines  is  repeated  in  the  third  and  fourth. 

Many  examples  of  this  figure  may  be  found  in  Shelley,  who 
uses  it  for  iterative  purposes : 

••  Bending  from  heaven,  in  azure  mirth. 
It  kissed  the  forehead  of  the  earth, 
And  smiled  upon  the  silent  sea. 
And  bade  the  frozen  streams  be  free." — Shelley. 

"Away,  away,  from  men  and  towns. 
To  the  wild  wood  and  the  downs, 
To  the  silent  wilderness." — Shelley. 

In  these  passages  the  figure  parallel  consists  of  the  presen- 
tation of  a  series  of  similar  acts  or  circumstances. 

"  Private  prayer  is  essential  to  spiritual  life ;  without  it  there  is  no 
life." — Rev.  F.  W.  Robertson. 

"  How  much  of  what  he  acknowledges  as  truth  is  profoundly  mysterious  ! 
What  difficulties  throng  great  portions  of  Scripture  !  How  dark  the  dis- 
pensations of  Providence  !  What  subject  for  implicit  faith  in  the  workings 
of  God's  moral  government." — Rev.  Henry  Melvill. 

"  Let  the  spot  be  purified,  or  let  it  cease  to  be  New  England.  Let  it  be 
purified,  or  let  it  be  set  aside  from  the  Christian  world  ;  let  it  be  put  out  of 


104  Elements  of  Rlietoric. 

the  circle  of  human  sympathies  and  human  records ;  and  let  civilized  man 
henceforth  have  no  commimion  with  \V — Daniel  Webster. 

In  each  of  these  passages  there  is  also  a  series  of  similar 
statements. 

Parallel,  like  antithesis,  assumes  various  forms  to  which 
names  have  been  given.    These  will  now  be  briefly  considered. 

§  87.    DI EXODUS. 

There  is  the  enumeration  of  successive  particulars  in  such  a 
way  that  they  are  presented  in  parallel  order.  This  is  called 
"  diexodus :" 

"  This  is  the  state  of  man :  to-day  he  puts  forth 
The  tender  leaves  of  hope,  to-morrow  blossoms. 
And  bears  his  blushing  honors  thick  upon  him  ; 
The  third  day,  comes  a  frost,  a  killing  frost ; 
And — when  he  thinks,  good  easy  man,  fall  surely 
His  greatness  is  a  ripening — nips  his  root. 
And  then  he  falls,  as  I  do." — Shakespeare. 

"  At  thirty,  man  suspects  himself  a  fool ; 
Knows  it  at  forty,  and  reforms  his  plan ; 
At  fifty,  chides  his  infamous  delay ; 
Pushes  his  prudent  purpose  to  resolve. 
Resolves;  and  re-rcsolvcs;  then  dies  the  same." — Young. 

§  88.   TRICOLA. 

Another  variety  is  found  when  similar  clauses  are  arranged 
by  threes.     This  is  called  "  tricola  :" 

"  Such  notions  shock  every  precept  of  morality,  every  feeling  of  human- 
ity, every  sentiment  of  honor." — Chatham. 

"  He  has  this  day  surprised  the  thousands  who  hung  with  rapture  on  his 
accents,  by  such  an  array  of  talents,  such  an  exhibition  of  capacity,  such  a 
display  of  power,  as  are  unparalleled  in  the  annals  of  oratory." — Burke, 

"My  heart  leaps  up  when  I  behold 
^  A  rainbow  in  the  sky. 

So  was  it  when  my  life  began. 
So  is  it  now  I  am  a  man. 
So  be  it  when  I  shall  grow  old, 
Or  let  me  die." — Wordsworth. 

§  89.    DIALLAGE. 

Diallage  is  the  union  of  words  partly  of  similar,  and  partly 
of  different  signification. 


Figtites  of  Relativity.  105 

If  the  following  sentences  be  written  out  separately,  in  par- 
allel order,  their  nature  will  be  more  clearly  apparent : 

"  I  have  found  them  and  shared  their  fellowship  among  the  daring,  the 
ardent,  the  indomitably  active  French. 

"  I  have  found  them  among  the  persevering,  resolute,  and  industrious 
Swiss. 

"  I  have  found  them  among  the  laborious,  the  warm-hearted,  the  enthu- 
siastic Germans." — Brougham. 

Here  there  is  a  parallel  in  the  general  idea,  while  there  are 
certain  special  differences.  The  same  is  seen  in  the  following 
sentence : 

"  Castlereagh  and  Canning  fought  in  the  same  ranks  with  Pitt ;  and 
Grattan  took  his  place  in  the  great  contests  of  party  by  the  side  of  Fox." 

§  90.   METABOLE. 

Metabole  is  the  repetition  of  similar  ideas  : 

"  I  entreat  you  by  your  love  of  peace  ;  by  your  hatred  of  oppression ;  by 
your  weariness  of  burdensome  and  useless  taxation." 

§  91.    EXERGASIA. 

Elxergasia  is  the  employment  in  succession  of  different 
phrases  conveying  the  same  meaning : 

"  Who  is  to  blame  for  this  ?  Against  whom  shall  the  charge  be  brought  ? 
Whom  shall  we  accuse  of  having  committed  it  ?" — Cicero. 

*'  But,  my  lords,  who  is  the  man  that  has  dared  to  associate  to  our  arms 
the  tomahawk  and  seal  ping -knife  of  the  savage — to  call  into  civilized  alliance 
the  wild  and  inhuman  inhabitant  of  the  woods — to  delegate  to  the  merciless 
Indian  the  defence  of  disputed  rights,  and  to  wage  the  horrors  of  his  bar- 
barous war  against  our  brethren?" — Chatham. 

§  92.   PARADIASTOLE. 

Things  which  have  similitude  are  distinguished.  This  is 
called  "paradiastole." 

"  Knowledge  and  wisdom,  far  from  being  one, 
Have  ofttimes  no  connection ;  .  .  . 
Knowledge  is  proud  that  he  has  learned  so  much, 
Wisdom  is  humble  that  he  knows  no  more." — CowPER. 

"True  fortitude  is  seen  in  great  exploits." 
"  'Tis  Greece,  but  living  Greece  no  more." — Byron. 
E  2 


io6  Ele7nents  of  Rhetoric. 

§  93.  COMPARISON. 

Comparison  is  that  figure  by  which  the  resemblance  between 
two  objects  is  pointed  out. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  comparison : 

1.  The  comparison  of  degree. 

In  this  the  comparison  refers  to  equality,  superiority,  or  in- 
feriority; e.g.,"  He  is  as  brave  as  a  lion." 

2.  The  comparison  of  analogy. 

Here  the  objects  compared  are  not  similar  in  themselves, 
but  occupy  similar  relations  to  something  else;  e.g., "Time  is 
like  a  river." 

3.  The  comparison  of  similarity. 

Here  the  objects  compared  are  actually  similar  in  them- 
selves; e.g.,"  He  is  like  his  father." 

The  comparison  of  analogy  and  that  of  similarity  are  both 
called  simile. 

§  94.  THE   COMPARISON   OF   DEGREE. 

The  comparison  of  degree,  or,  where  the  comparison  refers 
to  equality,  superiority  or  inferiority.  The  following  are  ex- 
amples : 

"  As  far  removed  from  God  and  sight  of  heaven 
As  from  the  centre  thrice  to  the  utmost  pole." — Milton. 

"No  more  like  my  father 
Than  I  to  Hercules." — Shakespeare. 

"  Go  wing  thy  flight  from  star  to  star, 
From  world  to  luminous  world,  as  far 

As  the  universe  spreads  its  flaming  wall; 
Take  all  the  pleasures  of  all  the  spheres, 
*'  And  multiply  each  through  endless  years — 

One  moment  of  heaven  is  worth  them  all." — MoORE. 

"These  philosophers  consider  men  in  their  experiments  no  more  than 
they  do  mice  in  an  air-pump,  or  in  a  recipient  of  mephitic  gas." — Burke. 

"  We  question  whether  the  world  has  since  witnessed  so  utterly  sad  a 
scene  ;  whether  Napoleon  himself,  left  to  brawl  with  Sir  Hudson  Lowe  and 
perish  on  his  rock,  presented  to  the  reflecting  mind  such  a  'spectacle  of 
pity  and  fear,'  as  did  this  intrinsically  nobler,  gentler,  and  perhaps  greater 
soul,  wasting  itself  away  in  a  hopeless  struggle  with  base  entanglements." — 
Carlyle. 

"  Nothing  can  be  conceived  more  hard  than  the  heart  of  a  thoroughbred 
metaphysician." — Burke. 


Figures  of  Relativity.  107 


§  95.  THE   COMPARISON    OF    ANALOGY. 

The  comparison  of  analogy :  where  the  objects  compared 
are  not  similar  in  themselves,  but  occupy  similar  relations  to 
something  else  : 

"She  pined  in  thought; 
And,  with  a  green  and  yellow  melancholy, 
She  sat,  like  Patience  on  a  monument, 
Smiling  at  grief." — Shakespeare. 

"  As  some  tall  cliff  that  lifts  its  awful  form, 
Swells  from  the  vale  and  midway  leaves  the  storm; 
Though  round  its  breast  the  rolling  clouds  are  spread, 
Eternal  sunshine  settles  on  its  head." — Goldsmith. 

"The  correctness  which  the  last  century  prized  so  much  resembled  the 
correctness  of  those  pictures  of  the  Garden  of  Eden  which  we  see  in  old 
Bibles — an  exact  square  enclosed  by  the  rivers  Pison,  Gihon,  Hiddekel, 
and  Euphrates ;  each  with  a  convenient  bridge  in  the  centre ;  rectangular 
beds  of  flowers ;  a  long  canal,  neatly  bricked  and  railed  in  ;  the  tree  of 
knowledge,  clipped  like  ovtt  of  the  limes  behind  the  Tuileries,  standing  in 
the  centre  of  the  grand  alley  ;  one  snake  twined  around  it ;  the  man  on  the 
right  hand ;  the  woman  on  the  left ;  and  the  beasts  drawn  up  in  an  exact 
circle  around  them.  In  one  sense  the  picture  is  correct  enough.  That 
is  to  say,  the  squares  are  correct,  the  circles  are  correct,  the  man  and  the 
woman  arc  in  a  most  correct  line  with  the  tree,  and  the  snake  forms  a  most 
correct  spiral."— Macaulay. 

"  Or,  again,  is  that  old  Italian  speech  dead  and  gone  that  murmurs  in 
Lucretius  a  ceaseless,  solemn  monotone  of  sea-shell  sound ;  that  in  Virgil 
flows  like  the  Eridanus,  calmly  but  majestically,  through  rich  lowlands 
fringed  with  tall  poplars,  and  rimmed  with  grassy  banks ;  that  quivers  to 
wild  strings  of  passion  in  Catullus  ;  that  wimples  like  a  beck  in  Ovid  ;  that 
coos  in  Tibullus  like  the  turtle  ;  that  sparkles  in  Horace  like  a  well-cut  dia- 
mond."— D'Arcy  Wentworth  Thompson. 

§  96.  THE  COMPARISON   OF   SIMILARITY. 

The  comparison  of  similarity :  when  the  objects  compared 
are  actually  similar  in  themselves : 

"The  citizen  of  an  Italian  commonwealth  was  the  Greek  of  the  time  of 
Juvenal,  and  the  Greek  of  the  time  of  Pericles,  joined  in  one.  Like  the 
former,  he  was  timid  and  pliable,  artful  and  unscrupulous.  But  like  the 
latter,  he  had  a  country.  Its  independence  and  prosperity  were  dear  to 
him.  If  his  character  were  degraded  by  some  mean  crimes,  it  was  on  the 
other  hand  ennobled  by  public  spirit  and  by  an  honorable  ambition." — 
Macaulay. 

"  The  peasant  poet  bears  himself,  we  might  say,  like  a  king  in  exile  ;  he 
is  cast  among  the  low,  and  feels  himself  equal  to  the  highest;  yet  he  claims 


io8  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

no  rank,  that  none  may  be  disputed  to  him.  The  forward  he  can  repel, 
the  supercilious  he  can  subdue  ;  pretensions  of  wealth  and  ancestry  are  of 
no  avail  with  him ;  there  is  a  fire  in  that  dark  eye  under  which  the  '  inso- 
lence of  condescension"  cannot  thrive.  In  his  abasement,  in  his  extreme 
need,  he  forgets  not  for  a  moment  the  majesty  of  poetry  and  manhood." — 
Carlyle. 

§  97.    COMPARISON   AS   AN   ORNAMENT. 

All  figures  tend,  in  the  first  place,  to  embellishment;  and 
also  contribute  to  enliven  style,  either  by  making  it  more  viva- 
cious, or  by  throwing  additional  light  upon  the  subject  with 
which  they  are  connected.  It  will  give  a  clearer  view  of  the 
true  nature  of  comparison  if  we  consider  its  effects;  first,  in  the 
way  of  ornament ;  and,  secondly,  in  the  way  of  explanation  or 
illustration. 

I.  When  comparison  is  used  as  an  ornament.  This  is  very 
apparent  in  poetry,  and  also  in  belles-lettres.  Even  here,  how- 
ever, the  ornament  is  associated  with  illustration,  and  seldom 
or  never  exists  by  itself  alone.  The  ornamental  character  of 
the  figure  may  be  perhaps  more  prominent,  and  the  mind  may 
be  so  taken  up  with  the  beauty  of  the  imagery  that  it  does  not 
perceive  its  force.  This  is  illustrated  by  Shelley's  ode  to  the 
Skylark : 

"  Like  a  poet  hidden 

In  the  light  of  thought. 
Singing  hymns  unbidden 
Till  the  world  is  wrought 
To  sympathy  with  hopes  and  fears  it  heeded  not : 

Like  a  high-bom  maiden 

In  a  palace  tower. 
Soothing  her  love-laden 
Soul  in  secret  hour 
With  music  sweet  as  love,  which  overflows  her  bower : 

Like  a  glow-worm  golden 

In  a  dell  of  dew. 
Scattering  unbeholden 
Its  aerial  hue 
Among  the  flowers  and  grass  which  screen  it  from  the  view : 

Like  a  rose  embowered 

In  its  own  green  leaves, 
By  warm  winds  deflowered, 

Till  the  scent  it  gives 
Makes  faint  with  too  much  sweet  these  heavy-winged  thieves. 


Figures  of  Relativity,  1 09 

Sounds  of  vernal  showers 

On  the  twinkling  grass, 
Rain  awakened  flowers, 

All  that  ever  was 
Joyous  and  clear  and  fresh,  thy  music  doth  surpass." 

Here  the  poet,  in  his  high  enthusiasm,  seems  to  exhaust  him- 
self in  search  of  fitting  subjects  of  comparison.  Each  one  as 
it  comes  is  made  use  of,  but  each  one  is  hurriedly  dismissed, 
in  order  to  present  another;  and  the  rich  and  varied  imagery 
never  fails  to  respond  to  the  sustained  elevation  of  this  perfect 
song. 

§  98.  COMPARISON  USED  FOR  EXPLANATION  AND  ILLUSTRATION. 

2.  Where  comparison  is  used  for  purposes  of  explanation  and 
illustration.  This  is  Apparent  in  poetry  and  belles-lettres  when 
it  is  used  for  embellishment;  but  it  is  more  clearly  conspicu- 
ous in  writings  which  do  not  admit  of  much  ornament,  such  as 
those  which  are  devoted  to  purposes  of  instruction.  The  use 
of  comparison  in  scientific  and  didactic  composition  gives  to 
this  figure  a  practical  character  which  is  possessed  by  no  other 
to  an  equal  degree.  In  the  following  example  there  will  be 
perceived  a  clear  explanation,  by  comparison,  of  the  author's 
view,  which  could  not  be  so  well  given  in  any  other  way : 

"  Women  are  less  capable  than  men  of  perceiving  qualifying  circumstan- 
ces ;  of  admitting  the  existence  of  elements  of  good  in  systems  to  which 
they  are  opposed ;  of  distinguishing  the  personal  character  of  an  opponent 
from  the  opinions  he  maintains.  Men  lean  most  to  justice,  and  women  to 
mercy.  Men  are  most  addicted  to  intemperance  and  brutality;  women  to 
frivolity  and  jealousy.  Men  excel  in  energy,  self-reliance,  perseverance,  and 
magnanimity ;  women  in  humility,  gentleness,  modesty,  and  endurance. 
The  realizing  im.igination  which  causes  us  to  pity  and  to  love  is  more  sen- 
sitive in  women  than  in  men  ;  and  it  is  especially  more  capable  of  dwelling 
on  the  unseen.  Their  religious  or  devotional  realizations  are  incontestably 
more  vivid ;  and  it  is  probable  that,  while  a  father  is  most  moved  by  the 
death  of  a  child  in  his  presence,  a  mother  generally  feels  most  the  death  of 
a  child  in  some  distant  land.  But,  though  more  intense,  the  sympathies  of 
women  are  commonly  less  wide  than  those  of  men." — W.  E.  H.  Lecky. 

§  99.    FAULTS    IN    THE    USE   OF    COMPARISON. 

A  figure  like  comparison,  which  is  so  universally  employed,  is 

liable  to  many  abuses,  the  chief  of  which  it  may  be  well  to  note. 

I.  AVhere  the  comparison  is  made  between  things  which  have 


no  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

a  resemblance  that  is  too  familiar  to  the  mind.  A  large  num- 
ber of  similitudes  are  familiar  to  all ;  for  instance,  the  resem- 
blance of  a  brave  man  to  a  lion;  a  cunning  man  to  a  fox;  a 
cruel  man  to  a  tiger  or  a  hyena;  time  to  a  river;  eternity  to  an 
ocean ;  life  to  day,  and  death  to  night;  of  man  to  strength,  and 
woman  to  beauty.  All  these  comparisons  have  been  used 
over  and  over  again  since  the  origin  of  literature,  and  from  fre- 
quent repetition  have  become  so  worn  out  that  they  cease  to 
be  either  ornamental  or  useful. 

2.  Where  the  resemblance  is  not  easily  apparent  or  difficult 
to  discover.  In  such  a  case  the  comparison  seems  far-fetched, 
and  offends  the  taste  as  too  artificial,  while  it  conveys  no  ade- 
quate idea  to  the  mind. 

3.  Where  the  comparison  refers  to  something  which  is  un- 
known or  unfamiliar.  Here  it  has  no  Effect,  for  it  is  unintel- 
ligible. To  an  ordinary  mind  some  of  Milton's  comparisons 
might  seem  faulty  in  this  respect,  and  the  only  answer  to  this 
objection  is  that  his  works  were  written  for  those  who  have 
sufficient  learning  to  appreciate  them.  Yet,  on  account  of  the 
learning  which  is  necessary  to  a  full  comprehension  of  some 
of  his  best  passages,  Milton's  works  will  never  be  popular  in 
the  sense  in  which  those  of  Shakespeare  are  popular,  or  Burns, 
or  even  Pope,  Addison,  and  Cowper. 

4.  Where  the  comparison  is  made  with  anything  that  is  lower 
than  the  subject.  By  this  the  subject  is  degraded,  and  th^ 
effect  is  spoiled.  Of  course,  where  there  is  a  deliberate  inten- 
tion to  depreciate,  the  case  is  different;  and  this  can  only  refer 
to  serious  composition  where  there  is  no  such  purpose. 

§   100.    METAPHOR. 

A  metaphor  is  an  implied  comparison.  In  comparison  the 
resemblance  between  two  things  is  formally  expressed,  as,  for 
example,  "  He  is  as  brave  as  a  lion."  In  metaphor  the  sign  of 
comparison  is  dropped,  the  two  are  identified,  and  the  one  is 
asserted  to  be  the  other,  as,  "  He  is  a  lion."  Hence  metaphor 
is  attended  with  a  higher  degree  of  animation,  and  involves  a 
bolder  effort  of  the  imagination. 

Metaphors  have  had  various  classifications,  but  the  best- 
known  is  that  of  Quintilian,  which  is  as  follows : 

I.  Where  one  living  thing  is  put  for  another. 


Figures  of  Relativity.  Ill 

2.  Where  one  inanimate  thing  is  put  for  another. 

3.  Where  inanimate  things  are  put  for  things  having  life. 

4.  Where  inanimate  things  are  represented  as  endowed  with 
life. 

§   lOI.    WHERE   ONE   LIVING   THING   IS    PUT    FOR   ANOTHER. 

1.  Where  one  living  thing  is  put  for  another  : 

"  His  rustic  friend,  his  nut-brown  maiden,  are  no  longer  mean  and  home- 
ly, but  a  hero  and  a  queen,  whom  he  prizes  as  the  paragons  of  earth." — 
Carlyle. 

"Nor  second  he  that  rode  sublime. 
Upon  the  seraph  wings  of  ecstasy, 
The  secrets  of  the  abyss  to  spy ; 
He  passed  the  flaming  bounds  of  place  and  time ; 
The  living  throne,  the  sapphire  blaze. 
Where  angels  tr-emble  while  they  gaze, 
He  saw ;  but,  blasted  with  excess  of  light, 
Closed  his  eyes  in  endless  night" — Gray. 

In  this  passage  Milton  is  represented  as  riding  upon  "seraph 
wings;"  that  is  as  if  in  emulation  of  Deity,  for  this  passage 
contains  an  allusion  to  Milton's  words — 

"  He  on  the  wings  of  seraph  rode  sublime, 
On  the  crystalline  sky." 

It  is  as  though  in  his  enthusiasm  the  poet  has  represented 
Milton  as  a  god. 

§   102.    WHERE    ONE   INANIMATE   THING    IS    PUT    FOR    ANOTHER. 

2.  Where  one  inanimate  thing  is  put  for  another : 

"An  Englishman's  house  is  his  castle." 
"Athens,  the  eye  of  Greece." — Milton. 

"  Sundays  the  pillars  are 
On  which  heaven's  palace  arched  lies. 

The  other  days  fill  up  the  spare 
And  hollow  room  with  vanities. 
They  are  the  fruitful  beds  and  borders 

In  God's  rich  garden ;  that  is  bare 
Which  parts  their  ranks  and  orders." — Geo.  Herbert. 

Sundays  are  here  called  "  pillars,"  and  afterwards  "  beds  and 
borders,"  while  the  other  days  of  the  week  are  spoken  of  as 
"vanities"  and  "bare  spaces." 


112  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 


§   103.  WHERE   INANIMATE  THINGS  ARE   PUT   FOR   THINGS   HAV- 
ING  LIFE. 

3.  Where  inanimate  things  are  put  for  things  having  life : 

Kaled,  the  "  Sword  of  God." 
"  Stonewall "  Jackson. 

"A  true  poet  soul,  for  it  needs  but  to  be  struck,  and  the  sound  it  yields 
will  be  music."— Carlyle. 

In  this  passage  the  soul  of  Burns  is  represented  as  a  musical 
instrument. 

§   104.    WHERE    INANIMATE    THINGS   ARE    REPRESENTED   AS    EN- 
DOWED  WITH    LIFE. 

5.  Where  inanimate  things  are  represented  as  endowed  with 
life.  This  is  identical  with  personification  in  its  lower  grades 
(see  Personification). 

A  hard  heart 
The  thirsty  ground. 

"Now  upon  Syria's  land  of  roses, 
Softly  the  light  of  eve  reposes ; 
And  like  a  glory  the  broad  sun 
Hangs  over  sainted  Lebanon, 
Whose  head  in  wintry  grandeur  towers. 

And  whitens  with  eternal  sleet ; 
While  summer,  in  a  vale  of  flowers, 

Is  sleeping  rosy  at  his  feet." — T.  Moore. 

The  light  of  eve  is  here  represented  as  endowed  with  life, 
and  reposing,  while  summer  also  is  sleeping. 

§  105.  METAPHOR  USED  AS  AN  ORNAMENT. 

Metaphor,  like  comparison,  has  widely  varied  effects;  and  it 
is  from  the  observation  of  these  that  it  may  best  be  appreciated. 
There  are  three  chief  applications  of  this  figure,  which  will  pre- 
sent sufficient  matter  for  consideration.  These  are,  first,  when 
it  is  applied  to  ornament;  secondly,  to  illustration;  and,  third- 
ly, to  emphasis. 

I.  Ornament. 

Such  is  the  great  beauty  of  metaphor,  and  so  large  is  its  ap- 
plication to  purposes  of  embellishment,  that  to  the  ordinary  ob- 
server it  seems  to  belong  altogether  to  ornament.     We  shall 


Figures  of  Relativity.  1 1 3 

see  that  it  has  far  higher  purposes,  but  yet,  as  far  as  embellish- 
ment is  concerned,  it  may  safely  be  said  to  surpass  every  other 
figure  : 

"  The  turf  shall  be  my  fragrant  shrine, 
My  temple,  Lord,  that  arch  of  thine ; 
My  censer's  breath  the  mountain  airs, 
And  silent  thoughts  my  only  prayers." — T.  MoORE. 

"  See  truth,  love,  and  mercy  in  triumph  descending. 
And  nature  all  glowing  in  Eden's  first  bloom ; 
On  the  cold  cheek  of  death  smiles  and  roses  are  blending. 
And  beauty  immortal  awakes  from  the  tomb." — Beatfie. 

§    106.   METAPHOR  USED  FOR  EXPLANATION  AND  ILLUSTRATION. 

Seldom,  however,  will  it  be  found  that  a  beautiful  metaphoi 
rests  in  beauty  only.  From  its  very  beauty  other  results  flow, 
which  tend  to  throw  a  new  light  over  a  subject,  or  give  it  a  new 
meaning  or  a  stronger  emphasis.  For  the  present  purpose  it 
is  enough  to  let  the  mind  dwell  upon  the  beauty  of  a  metaphor, 
apart  from  its  other  effects ;  and  then  consider  those  other  ef- 
fects by  themselves.  Among  these  is  next  to  be  considered 
the  effect  of  the  metaphor  towards  explanation  or  illustration. 

2.  Explanation  and  illustration. 

In  Wordsworth's  sublime  ode  on  Immortality  he  teaches  the 
doctrine  of  a  previous  conscious  existence;  and  seeks  to  sup- 
port this,  not  by  proofs,  for  that  were  impossible,  but  by  a  se- 
ries of  facts  in  human  experience.  In  the  following  example 
there  is  in  the  first  line  a  statement  of  the  theory,  "Our  birth 
is  but  a  sleep  and  a  forgetting,"  after  which  follow  several  met- 
aphors, which  serve  to  explain  the  theory  and  illustrate  it : 

"Our  birth  is  but  a  sleep  and  a  forgetting: 
The  soul  that  rises  with  us,  our  life's  star, 

Hath  had  elsewhere  its  setting. 
And  Cometh  from  afar : 

Not  in  entire  forgetfulness. 

And  not  in  utter  nakedness. 
But  trailing  clouds  of  glory,  do  we  come 

From  God,  who  is  our  home : 
Heaven  lies  about  us  in  our  infancy. 
Shades  of  the  prison-house  begin  to  close 

Upon  the  growing  boy; 
But  he  beholds  the  light, .and  whence  it  flows; 

He  sees  it  in  his  joy. 


1 14  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  youth,  who  daily  farther  from  the  east 
Must  travel,  still  is  nature's  priest ; 
And  by  the  vision  splendid 
Is  on  his  way  attended. 
At  length  the  man  perceives  it  die  away, 
And  fade  into  the  light  of  common  day. 


Hence  in  a  season  of  calm  weather. 

Though  inland  far  we  be, 
Our  souls  have  sight  of  that  immortal  sea 

Which  brought  us  hither, 

Can  in  a  moment  travel  thither, 
And  see  the  children  sport  upon  the  shore. 
And  hear  the  mighty  waters  rolling  evermore." 

In  the  following  passage  De  Quincey  affirms  the  human 
brain  to  be  a  palimpsest,  that  is,  a  parchment  sheet  upon 
which  the  original  writing  has  been  obliterated,  in  order  to  re- 
ceive new  writing;  which  in  its  turn  has  been  obliterated  in 
such  a  way  that  the  first  draught  stands  revealed.  This  met- 
aphor is  used  for  purposes  of  explanation  : 

"  What  else  than  a  natural  and  mighty  palimpsest  is  the  human  brain. 
Such  a  palimpsest  is  my  brain ;  such  a  palimpsest,  O  reader,  is  yours ! 
Everlasting  layers  of  ideas,  images,  feelings,  have  fallen  upon  your  brain, 
softly  as  light.  Elach  succession  has  seemed  to  bury  all  that  went  before. 
And  yet  m  reality  not  one  has  been  extinguished.  And  if,  in  the  vellum 
palimpsest,  lying  among  the  other  diplomata  of  human  archives,  or  libra- 
ries, there  is  anything  fantastic,  or  which  moves  to  laughter,  as  oftentimes 
there  is  in  the  grotesque  collisions  of  those  successive  themes  having  no 
natural  connection,  which  by  pure  accident  have  consecutively  occupied  the 
roll,  yet,  in  our  own  heaven-created  palimpsest — the  deep  memorial  palimp- 
sest of  the  brain — there  are  not  and  cannot  be  such  incoherences." 

§   107.    METAPHOR   USED   TO   GIVE   STRENGTH   AND    EMPHASIS. 

The  effect  of  metaphor  sometimes  is  to  present  a  thought 
with  extraordinary  vigor  and  emphasis ;  and  where  it  is  success- 
fully employed  in  this  way  there  is  a  union  of  beauty  and 
strength  such  as  arrests  the  attention  and  impresses  itself 
upon  the  memory. 

In  the  following  passage  an  aspersion  upon  Ireland,  convey- 
ed in  a  metaphor,  is  admirably  encountered,  and  turned  back 
upon  the  adversary  by  another  metaphor : 

"  You  say  that  Ireland  is  a  millstone  about  our  necks ;  that  it  would  be 
better  for  us  if  Ireland  were  sunk  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea ;  that  the  Irish 


Figures  of  Relativity.  1 1 5 

are  a  nation  of  irreclaimable  savages  and  barbarians.  How  often  have  I 
heard  those  sentiments  fall  from  the  plump  and  thoughtless  squire,  and  from 
the  thriving  English  shopkeeper,  who  has  never  felt  the  rod  of  an  Orange 
master  upon  his  back.  Ireland  a  millstone  about  your  neck?  Why  is  it  not 
a  stone  of  Ajax  in  your  hand?"— Rev.  Sydney  Smith. 

**  Once  to  every  man  or  nation  comes  the  moment  to  decide, 
In  the  strife  of  Truth  with  Falsehood,  for  the  good  or  evil  side ; 
Some  great  cause,  God's  new  Messiah,  offering  each  the  bloom  or  blight, 
Parts  the  goats  upon  the  left  hand  and  the  sheep  upon  the  right. 
And  the  choice  goes  by  forever  'twixt  that  darkness  and  that  light. 

Careles?  seems  the  great  Avenger  ;  history's  pages  but  record 
One  death-grapple  in  the  darkness  'twixt  old  systems  and  the  Word ; 
Truth  forever  on  the  scaffold.  Wrong  forever  on  the  throne ; 
Yet  that  scaffold  sways  the  future,  and,  behind  the  dim  unknown, 
Standeth  God  within  the  shadow,  keeping  watch  above  his  own." 

—James  Russell  Lowell. 

In  this  passage  the  metaphor  identifies  a  good  cause,  its 
struggles  and  certain  victory,  with  Christ,  his  passion  and 
triumph. 

Mrs.  Julia  Ward  Howe's  thrilling  Battle  Hymn  of  the  Repub- 
lic consists  of  a  series  of  metaphors,  each  line  containing  a 
separate  one  conceived  and  expressed  with  resistless  force  and 
effect  : 

**  Mine  eyes  have  seen  the  glory  of  the  coming  of  the  Lord  : 
He  is  trampling  out  the  vintage  where  the  grapes  of  wrath  are  stored ; 
He  hath  loosed  the  fateful  lightning  of  his  terrible  swiA  sword. 

He  hath  sounded  forth  the  trumpet  that  shall  never  call  retreat ; 
He  is  sifting  out  the  hearts  of  men  before  his  judgment-seat ; 
O,  be  swift,  my  soul,  to  answer  him  !  be  jubilant,  my  feet !" 

§    108.    FAULTS    IN    THE   USE   OF    METAPHOR. 

In  considering  the  faults  which  occur  in  the  use  of  this  fig- 
ure, some  will  be  found  which  are  similar  to  the  faults  which 
arise  in  comparison,  while  others  are  peculiar  to  metaphor. 
Thus  in  metaphor,  as  in  comparison,  the  resemblance  should 
not  be  too  familiar  or  too  remote;  it  should  not  refer  to 
what  is  unknown,  or  to  what  is  low  and  degraded.  The  in- 
termingling of  different  images  is  something  which  has  to  do 
with  metaphors  only,  since  it  is  but  seldom  to  be  found  in  com- 
parison. 

I.  When  the  resemblance  is  too  familiar  the  image  has  no 

F 


1 1 6  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

effect.  This  is  the  case  with  all  such  as  are  trite,  hackneyed, 
and  worn  out  from  frequent  use,  as,  the  azure  skies ;  the  silver 
moon  ;  a  lion  heart ;  smiling  morn. 

2.  When  the  resemblance  is  remote  it  is  not  readily  under- 
stood or  appreciated.  Such  metaphors  are  called  far-fetched 
and  strained,  as, 

"...  to  and  fro  weltering  of  my  long  ago .  .  . 
Shapes  of  goods  once  fleshed  and  fair, 
Grown  foul  bads  in  alien  air"  . . . — Centennial  Ode. 
These  images  are  not  easily  intelligible. 

3.  When  the  metaphor  involves  something  that  is  beneath 
the  dignity  of  the  subject  the  effect  is  to  degrade  it;  and  this 
is  a  great  fault,  except  in  cases  where  it  is  the  intention  of  the 
writer  to  depreciate  or  abase  it.  Such  metaphors  are  frequent 
enough,  and  belong  to  the  figures  of  diminution,  under  which 
head  they  are  considered.  They  may  also  be  found  in  humor- 
ous wriring,  where  sometimes  the  degradation  of  a  grave  theme 
gives  rise  to  the  ridiculous. 

4.  The  metaphor  should  not  be  carried  too  far,  nor  should 
too  many  be  introduced.  The  effect  of  this  is  to  overload  the 
style  with  ornament,  and  to  render  it  weak  and  tedious.  This 
is  a  fault  which  pervades  Oriental  writing:  it  is  also  found  in 
Anglo-Saxon  and  ancient  Icelandic  poetry.  The  excess  of  met- 
aphor here  often  leads  to  great  obscurity,  ^schylus  is  open 
to  the  charge  of  frequent  offences  in  this  respect.  But  some- 
times certain  passages  may  consist  of  numerous  metaphors; 
and  when  they  are  well  chosen,  and  the  imagination  is  strongly 
excited,  the  effect  is  good.  This  is  set  down  by  some  as  a  sep- 
arate figure,  and  is  called  phantasia. 

§   109.    MIXED   METAPHORS. 

The  chief  fault  in  the  employment  of  this  figure  is  that  which 
is  called  mixed  metaphors.  This  signifies  what  the  name  im- 
plies, that  is,  the  intermingling  of  metaphorical  language  with 
literal,  or  the  confusion  of  different  metaphors.  These  tv/o 
faults  are  essentially  the  same,  but  for  purposes  of  clearness 
and  convenience  they  may  be  considered  separately. 

I.  Where  metaphorical  and  plain  language  are  intermingled  : 

"  The  fiend  Intemperance  is  marshalling  his  hosts,  so  as  to  poison  the 
minds  and  bodies  of  poor  inebriates." 


Figures  of  Relativity.  1 1 7 

Here  the  image  of  an  armed  body  of  men  is  intermingled 
with  the  plain  statement  of  the  poisonous  effects  of  alcohol. 

"  Sailing  on  the  sea  of  life,  we  are  often  in  danger  from  the  temptations 
around  us." 

Here  the  voyage  of  life  is  presented  as  an  image,  and  con- 
fused with  the  literal  "temptations"  of  life. 

"  If  we  put  on  the  whole  armor  of  righteousness,  we  shall  be  less  liable  to 
yield  to  the  allurements  of  sin." 

The  figure  of  an  armed  man  has  no  connection  with  literal 
"allurements." 

2.  Where  different  metaphors  are  intermingled  and  con- 
fused : 

"  Virtue  alone  can  save  us  from  the  hosts  of  evil  when  they  roll  in  upon 
us." 

The  image  of  hosts  is  here  confused  with  that  of  rolling 
billows. 

This  resembles  Shakespeare's  lines  : 

•'  Or  to  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles, 
And,  by  opposing,  end  them  ?" 

"  He  alone  can  manage  the  storm-tossed  ship  of  state  on  its  march." 

The  mixture  of  metaphors  is  here  very  glaring,  as  also  in  the 
following  example  : 

"  My  lords,  the  main  feature  on  which  this  question  hinges — " 

Burke,  in  his  speech  on  the  East  India  Bill  of  Mr.  Fox,  in 
describing  the  class  of  Englishmen  who  go  to  India,  has  the 
following : 

"  Animated  with  all  the  avarice  of  age  and  all  the  impetuosity  of  youth, 
they  roll  in  one  after  another,  wave  after  wave  ;  and  there  is  nothing  before 
the  eyes  of  the  natives  but  an  endless,  hopeless  prospect  of  new  flights  of 
birds  of  prey  and  passage,  with  appetites  continually  renewing  for  a  food  that 
is  continually  wasting." 

Here  the  English  are  called  "waves"  and  "birds  of  prey." 
Some  of  the  finest  passages  in  Shakespeare  exhibit  an  inter- 
mingling of  metaphors : 

"As  glorious 
As  is  the  winged  messenger  of  heaven  .  .  . 
When  he  bestrides  the  lazy  pacing  clouds 
And  sails  upon  the  bosom  of  the  air." 


Ii8  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

"The  charm  dissolves  apace, 
And  as  the  morning  steals  uporTthe  night, 
Melting  the  darkness ;  so  their  rising  senses 
Begin  to  chase  the  ignorant  fumes  that  mantle 
Their  clearer  reason." 

Critics  have  condemned  these  on  the  ground  that  it  is  im> 
possible  for  the  imagination  to  form  a  picture  composed  of 
such  confused  objects.  But  these  are  defended  by  another 
class,  and  this  controversy  brings  the  subject  into  a  new  posi- 
tion, which  must  be  considered. 

§  no.  MIXED    METAPHORS   ARE    NOT  ALWAYS   OBJECTIONABLE. 

It  may  be  shown  that  mixed  metaphors  are  not  always  ob- 
jectionable. The  greatest  poets  have  not  been  most  careful 
to  avoid  these  incongruities ;  and  Shakespeare  in  every  play 
shows  a  lordly  disregard  of  convention.  There  are  two  cases 
in  which  mixed  metaphors  may  be  defended. 

I.  Phantasia. 

By  some  phantasia  is  set  down  as  a  separate  figure.  It 
means  the  accumulation  of  tropes  or  images.  These  are  gen- 
erally crowded  together  without  intermingling,  though  there 
may  be  confusion. 

The  following  is  an  example  : 

"As  killing  as  the  canker  to  the  rose, 
Or  taint-worm  to  the  weanling  herds  that  graze, 
Or  frost  to  flowers  that  their  gay  wardrobe  wear 
When  first  the  white  thorn  blows — 
Such,  Lycidas,  thy  loss  to  shepherd's  ear." — Milton. 

Here  there  is  certainly  no  confusion,  but  there  is  a  rich  ac- 
cumulation of  figures. 

In  Shelley's  ode  to  a  Skylark,  already  quoted,  there  is  also 
an  example  of  accumulated  images. 

In  the  following  passages  from  Macaulay's  essay  on  Bacon, 
there  is  another  example  : 

"Assuredly,  if  the  tree  which  Socrates  planted  and  Plato  watered  is  to 
be  judged  of  by  its  flowers  and  leaves,  it  is  the  noblest  of  trees.  But  if  we 
take  the  homely  test  of  Bacon,  if  we  judge  of  the  tree  by  its  fruits,  our 
opiiiion  of  it  may  be  less  favorable.  .  .  .  Plato  drew  a  good  bow,  but  like 
Acestes,  in  Virgil,  he  aimed  at  the  stars ;  and  therefore,  though  there  was 


Figures  of  Relativity.  119 

no  want  of  strength  or  skill,  the  shot  was  thrown  away.  His  arrow  was  in- 
deed followed  by  a  track  of  dazzling  radiance,  but  it  struck  nothing.  Bacon 
fixed  his  eye  on  a  mark  which  was  placed  on  the  earth,  and  within  bowshot, 
and  hit  it  on  the  white.  ...  He  desired  such  persons  to  remember  that  he 
had  from  the  first  announced  the  objects  of  his  search  to  be,  not  the  splen- 
did and  the  surprising,  but  the  useful  and  the  true  ;  not  the  deluding  dreams 
which  go  forth  through  the  shining  portal  of  ivory,  but  the  humbler  realities 
of  the  gates  of  horn.  .  .  .  Though  Bacon  did  not  arm  his  philosophy  with 
the  weapons  of  logic,  he  adorned  her  profusely  with  all  the  richest  decora- 
tions of  rhetoric." 

In  this  group  of  passages  we  have  an  array  of  different  fig- 
ures in  which  there  is  not  the  slightest  confusion.  A  rich  and 
vivid  imagination  will  often  delight  in  throwing  off  from  its  very 
richness  numerous  images,  which  may  be  collected  in  one  pas- 
sage; and  sometimes  two  or  more  of  these  will  be  incongruous. 
Yet  the  incongruity  is  more  apparent  than  real.  For  instance, 
in  Hamlet's  soliloquy  a  number  of  images  are  accumulated, 
among  which  is  the  following,  quoted  above : 

*'  Or  to  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles, 
And,  by  opposing,  end  them  .>" 

Although  one  cannot  literally  take  arms  against  the  sea,  yet 
there  are  some  who  contend  that  there  need  be  no  confusion 
here.  They  maintain  that  the  term,  "  a  sea  of  troubles,"  in- 
volves in  itself  the  conception  of  a  host  of  enemies,  against 
which  arms  may  be  taken.  The  defenders  of  this,  and  of 
other  great  passages  of  a  similar  character,  rest  their  argument 
upon  the  theory  that  in  every  metaphor  there  is  not  only  a 
direct  meaning,  but  also  a  suggested  one,  and  that  where  this 
suggested  meaning  does  not  create  any  conflict  of  ideas,  there 
need  be  no  confusion.     Thus  the  lines,  quoted  before  ; 

"When  he  bestrides  the  lazy  pacing  clouds 
And  sails  upon  the  bosom  of  the  air," 

are  defended  on  the  ground  that  the  word  "sails"  suggests  any 
easy,  gliding  motion. 

2.  In  many  religious  hymns  there  is  a  mixture  of  metaphors. 
For  instance,  it  is  charged  upon  the  "  Rock  of  Ages,"  which  is 
so  well  known  and  so  deeply  loved,  that  the  image  of  a  rock  is 
confounded  with  the  person  of  Christ.  The  answer  that  has 
been  given  to  this  is  that  the  confusion  is  only  apparent,  and 


120  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

is  due  to  the  peculiar  nature  of  religious  phraseology.  For 
this  forms,  so  to  speak,  a  language  by  itself,  with  its  own  ap- 
propriate vocabulary ;  and  is  full  of  imagery  and  figurative  ex- 
pressions drawn  from  the  Bible,  which  have  gained  for  them- 
selves almost  a  literal  character.  In  the  language  of  religion, 
as  in  that  of  common  life,  many  metaphors  have  come  into 
general  use,  the  purely  figurative  character  of  which  is  not  often 
suspected,  and  the  intermingling  of  these  in  a  hymn,  such  as 
the  "  Rock  of  Ages,"  need  not  be  regarded  as  an  actual  fault. 

§   III,    CATACHRESIS. 

There  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  metaphor,  called  catachresis, 

which  is  sometimes  defined  as  "  an  abuse  of  metaphor ;"  but 

aljetter  definition  is  that  it  is  a  word  turned  from  its  literal 

signification,  and  made  to  express  something  at  variance  with 

it,  as, 

"  The  music  of  her  face." 

Here  "  music,"  which  is  the  beauty  of  sound,  is  affirmed  of 
the  beauty  of  aspect,  with  which  it  is  at  variance  as  belonging 
to  a  different  class  of  things. 

"  There,  too,  the  goddess  loves  in  stone,  and  fills 
The  air  around  with  beauty." 

The  phrase  "loves  in  stone"  is  similar  to  the  above;  and 
of  the  same  nature  is  the  following : 

•'  Heartlessness,  in  comparison  with  which  the  ice  of  Nova  2^mbla  is 
warm." 

Coldness  of  heart  is  here  contrasted  with  a  certain  kind  of 
ice. 

§   112.    ALLEGORY. 

Allegory  is  closely  associated  with  metaphor.  It  has  been 
called  "  a  prolonged  metaphor,"  and  may  be  defined  as  a  nar- 
rative with  a  figurative  meaning,  designed  to  convey  instruction 
of  a  moral  character. 

Allegory  is  found  in  the  most  ancient  writings.  It  is  very 
common  in  the  literature  of  Oriental  nations,  but  in  that  of 
Greece  and  Rome  it  is  of  less  frequent  occurrence,  the  Choice 
of  Hercules  being  perhaps  the  most  familiar  example.     This 


Figures  of  Relativity.  12 1 

species  of  composition  rose  to  extended  use  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  mystery  and  morality  plays  may  be  regarded  as 
dramatic  allegory,  and  show  the  existence  of  an  extraordinary 
fondness  for  this  sort  of  figurative  treatment.  The  first  im- 
portant work  in  English  poetry  was  of  this  character — the 
"Vision  of  William  concerning  Piers  the  Plowman;"  and  about 
the  same  time  Chaucer  wrote  his  "  House  of  Fame."  It  was  in 
this  form  that  Spenser  wrote  his  Faerie  Queene,  which  is  the 
noblest  example  of  allegory  in  English  verse.  The  next  great 
work  was  in  prose.  This  was  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress, 
the  immense  popularity  of  which  shows  no  signs  of  abatement. 
The  next  of  importance  are  Johnson's  Rasselas,  and  Thom- 
son's Castle  of  Indolence.  Passing  over  other  examples,  we 
come  to  the  poems  of  Edgar  Poe,  which  are  generally  of  this 
description,  and  of  which  the  chief  one,  "  The  Raven,"  has  had 
a  world-wide  popularity.  Here  the  poet,  or  speaker,  is  repre- 
sented as  having  lost  his  early  loVe,  Lenore  (innocence  or  pu- 
rity), and  as  visited  by  a  raven  (remorse).  Foreign  literature 
abounds  in  examples,  but  especially  the  German.'  Many  of 
Uhland's  poems  belong  to  this  class.  Chamisso's  "  Shadow- 
less Man"  is  a  powerful  work  of  the  same  kind.  To  this  be- 
long also  the  best-known  writings  of  De  la  Motte  Fouqud.  In 
"  Undine,"  the  water-spirit  (poetry^  comes  to  dwell  with  man, 
but  is  finally  destroyed  by  a  drop  of  water  (prosait  or  practi- 
cal life).  In  "  Sintram  and  his  Companions,"  by  the  same 
author,  is  represented  the  struggle  of  the  human  soul  with  the 
world,  the  flesh,  and  the  devil.  Far  beyond  these  is  Goethe's 
Faust,  the  theme  of  whii^li  is  the*stru^gle  of  the  soul  with 
temptation,  its  fall,  and  its  final  redemption,  which  in  the  sec- 
ond part  is  somewhat  vaguely  suggested.  But  the  greatest  of 
all  allegories  is  Dante's  Divina  Commedia.  This  shows  the 
progress  of  Dante  (the  soul  of  man),  guided  by  Virgil  (earth- 
ly wisdom)  and  Beatrice  (celestial  wisdom),  through  Inferno 
(scenes  of  sin  and  suffering),  and  Purgatorio  (scenes  of  expia- 
tion), to  Paradiso  (final  blessedness).  Its  general  scheme  is 
analogous  to  that  of  the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  though  the  details 
are  infinitely  different. 

The  greatest  allegories  in  English  literature  are  the  Faerie 
Queene  of  Spenser  and  the  Pilgrim's  Progress  of  Bunyan.  The 
former  is  a  poem  of  the  highest  order,  but  is  not  at  all  popular; 


122  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

the  latter  is  the  most  widely  circulated  book  in  existence,  next 
to  the  Bible,  and  next  to  that  has  been  translated  into  more 
languages  than  any  other  work.  Macaulay  compares  these 
two,  and  accounts  for  the  unpopular  character  of  the  former 
on  the  ground  that  allegory  is  uninteresting,  "  Even  Spenser 
himself,"  he  says,  "  could  not  succeed  in  the  attempt  to  make 
allegory  interesting."  But  such  a  statement  is  disproved  by 
the  notorious  fact  that  allegory  has  always  been  interesting, 
and  continues  to  be  so.  It  is  rather  Spenser's  treatment  that 
is  at  fault,  for  this,  though  richly  poetical,  is  certainly  not  pop- 
ular. He  wrote  for  the  few,  and  has  always  been  admired  and 
beloved  by  the  few.  Macaulay's  criticism  is  severe,  yet  in  part 
just  "  One  unpardonable  fault,"  he  says,  *'  the  fault  of  dulness, 
pervades  the  whole  of  the  Faerie  Queene.  We  become  sick  of 
cardinal  virtues  and  deadly  sins,  and  long  for  the  society  of 
plain  men  and  women.  Of  the  persons  who  read  the  first 
canto,  not  one  in  ten  reaches  the  end  of  the  first  book,  and  not 
one  in  a  hundred  perseveres  to  the  end  of  the  poem.  Very  few 
and  very  weary  are  those  who  are  in  at  the  death  of  the  bla- 
tant beast." 

On  the  contrary,  of  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress,  he  says  : 

"  All  the  forms  which  cross  or  overtake  the  pilgrims  are  actually  exist- 
ing beings  for  us.  We  follow  the  travellers  through  their  allegorical  prog- 
ress with  interest  not  inferior  to  that  with  which  we  follow  Elizabeth  from 
Siberia  to  Moscow,  or  Jeanie  Deans  from  Edinburgh  to  London.  Bunyan 
is  almost  the  only  writer  that  ever  gave  to  the  abstract  the  interest  of  the 
concrete.  The  mind  of  Bunyan  was  so  imaginative  that  personifications 
when  he  dealt  with  them  became  men.  A  dialogue  between  two  qualities 
in  his  dream  has  more  dramatic  effect  than  a  dialogue  between  two  human 
beings  in  most  plays." 

The  characters  in  an  allegory  may  have  the  names  of  ab- 
stract qualities,  as  in  the  Pilgrim's  Progress ;  or  names  drawn 
from  other  sources,  such  as  legend  or  the  fancy  of  the  writer, 
as  in  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene.  Its  effectiveness  does  not  de- 
pend upon  the  names  of  the  characters,  but  rather  upon  the 
characters  themselves.  If  they  are  lifelike;  if  the  action  is 
vigorous;  if  the  author  gives  himself  up  to  the  narrative,  and 
allows  it  to  convey  its  own  lesson,  without  interrupting  it  with 
his  own  moralizing,  then  the  allegory  will  be  as  interesting  as 
any  other  narrative.    As  far  as  names  are  concerned,  they  may 


Figures  of  Relativity.  123 

belong  to  abstract  qualities,  as  in  the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  or 
they  may  be  taken  from  real  life,  as  in  many  of  the  cases 
above  mentioned. 

§   113.    PARABLE. 

The  parable  may  be  defined  as  a  fictitious  example  designed 
to  inculcate  moral  or  religious  truth.  It  is  similar  to  the  alle- 
gory; and  indeed  it  often  happens  that  it  is  difficult  to  assign 
some  pieces  with  certainty  to  the  one  or  the  other.  There  is, 
however,  an  essential  difference  between  them. 

The  allegory  sets  forth  a  story  which  shall  impart  moral  in- 
struction of  a  general  character;  the  parable  is  a  story  told  for 
the  sake  of  illustrating  some  special  point.  The  former  is 
many-sided,  the  latter  is  single  in  its  aim;  in  the  one  the  moral 
follows  from  the  narrative,  in  the  other  the  narrative  is  made 
up  expressly  for  the  sake  of  the  moral;  in  the  allegory  the 
story  itself  is  full  of  interest,  in  the  parable  the  moral  quite 
overshadows  the  story. 

The  most  familiar  examples  of  the  parable  are  those  in  the 
Sacred  Scriptures. 

§   114.    FABLE. 

The  fable  originally  meant  any  short  story  conveying  a  mor- 
al; but  at  the  present  lime  its  application  is  confined  to  those 
stories  in  which  animals  or  inanimate  objects  are  represented 
as  endowed  with  intelligence  and  other  human  attributes,  and 
acting  or  speaking  in  such  a  way  as  to  convey  a  useful  lesson. 
The  most  familiar  examples  are  ^Esop's  Fables. 

§    115.    PERSONIFICATION. 

Personification  is  that  figure  by  which  life  is  attributed  to  in- 
animate objects.  It  is  a  trope,  and  is  closely  identical  with 
metaphor;  for  in  Quintilian's  classification  the  fourth  class  is 
merely  the  lower  kind  of  personification.  The  tendency  to  en- 
dow inanimate  objects  with  the  properties  of  life  and  sense  is 
universal,  and  is  part  of  human  nature,  being  found  among 
savages  as  well  as  among  the  civilized,  and  in  all  races  and  ages 
and  classes.  It  lies  at  the  basis  of  religious  superstition.  Thus 
the  ancient  Greek  regarded  all  inanimate  nature  as  instinct 
with  life;  he  peopled  the  woods  and  waters  with  sentient  be- 

F  2 


124  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

ings,  and  looked  upon  the  trees  and  streams  and  mountains 
as  actual  persons.  The  child  shows  the  same  tendency  to  per- 
sonify when  he  strikes  back  at  the  stone  over  which  he  has 
stumbled.  Its  power  is  also  seen  in  the  development  of  lan- 
guage, where  we  find  things  without  life  classified  as  masculine 
or  feminine. 
There  are  three  degrees  of  personification  : 

1.  When  inanimate  objects  are  conceived  of  as  endowed  with 
life;  as,  "a  raging  storm,"  "a  cruel  disease,"  "the  smiling 
morn,"  "  a  living  spring,"  "  a  frowning  precipice,"  "  winged 
words,"  "a  pitiless  stone,"  "thirsty  ground."  This  is  illus- 
trated in  the  following  lines : 

"Sweet  day,  so  cool,  so  calm,  so  bright. 
The  bridal  of  the  earth  and  sky, 
The  dews  shall  weep  thy  fall  to-night, 
For  thou  must  die." — George  Herbert. 

This  is  the  lowest  and  most  familiar  form  of  personification. 
It  is  in  general  use  in  poetry,  and  also  in  prose ;  and  is  so  nat- 
ural and  prosaic  that  it  is  employed  in  common  conversation. 

2.  The  second  degree  of  personification  is  where  the  object 
is  described  as  acting.     The  following  are  examples  : 

"Law  steps  forth  to  protect  the  accused." 
•*  Britain  strikes  off  the  captive's  chains." 

"  Earth  felt  the  wound,  and  nature,  from  her  source. 
Sighing  through  all  her  works,  gave  signs  of  woe." — MiLTON. 

"The  bridegroom  sea 
Is  toying  with  the  shore,  his  wedded  bride ; 
Retires  a  space  to  see  how  fair  she  looks, 
Then,  proud,  runs  up  to  kiss  her." — Alexander  Smith, 

"How  sleep  the  brave  who  sink  to  rest 
By  all  their  country's  wishes  blest ! 


By  fairy  hands  their  knell  is  rung ; 

By  forms  unseen  their  dirge  is  sung ; 

There  Honor  comes,  a  pilgrim  gray, 

To  bless  the  turf  that  wraps  their  clay; 

And  Freedom  shall  awhile  repair, 

To  dwell  a  weeping  hermit  there." — Collins. 

This  is  common  in  prose  also,  as,  "France  goes  to  war  for 
an  idea ;"  "  America  was  agonized  by  the  fratricidal  conflict." 


Figures  of  Relativity.  125 

In  nearly  all  languages  but  the  English  inanimate  things  are 
personified,  since  they  are  regarded  as  masculine  or  Riniiiine. 
In  English  poetry  this  is  done  by  a  regular  act  of  personifica- 
tion. They  are  represented  as  living  and  acting.  Things  per- 
sonified are  with  us  chiefly  feminine,  and  include  more  partic- 
ularly countries,  cities,  and  abstract  qualities. 

In  common  conversation  there  is  a  strong  tendency  to  this 
figure  among  the  lower  orders.  Thus  a  "  ship  "  is  feminine, 
and  is  spoken  of  as  "  she ;"  so  is  a  "  watch,"  a  *'  gun,"  and 
many  other  articles  of  personal  property.  This  probably  arises 
from  a  tendency  to  regard  such  things  as  "  pets,"  or  objects  of 
affection;  and  hence  they  are  naturally  made  feminine.  In 
other  cases,  where  there  is  antagonism  or  hostility,  the  object 
is  made  masculine. 

3.  The  third  kind  of  personification  arises  where  the  object 
is  represented  as  endowed  with  the  powers  of  speech  and  in- 
telligence. The  most  common  form  of  this  consists  of  an  ad- 
dress to  the  personified  object : 

"  O  unexpected  stroke,  worse  than  of  death ! 
Must  I  thus  leave  thee,  Paradise?" — MiLTON. 

"  Farewell,  happy  fields, 
Where  joy  forever  dwells  !     Hail,  horrors,  hail ! 
And  thou,  profoundest  hell !" — Milton. 

"Go,  lovely  rose, 
Tell  her  that  wastes  her  time  and  mc, 

That  now  she  knows, 
When  I  resemble  her  to  thee. 
How  sweet  and  fair  she  seems  to  be." — Ed.  Waller. 

"  Fair  daffodils,  we  weep  to  see 
You  haste  away  so  soon."— Robert  Herrick. 

"  Wake  from  thy  nest,  robin  redbreast, 
Sing,  birds,  from  every  furrow, 
And  from  each  hill  let  music  shrill, 
Give  my  fair  love  good-morrow." — Thomas  Heywood. 

"If  aught  of  oaten  stop,  or  pastoral  song. 
May  hope,  chaste  Eve,  to  soothe  thy  modest  ear, 
Like  thy  own  solemn  springs, 
Thy  springs  and  dying  gales." — CoLLINS. 

"  Ye  living  flowers  that  skirt  the  eternal  frost ! 
Ye  wild  goats  sporting  rotind  the  eagle's  nest ! 


/I 


126  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Ye  eagles,  playmates  of  the  mountain-storm ! 

Ye  lightnings,  the  dread  arrows  of  the  clouds ! 

Ye  signs  and  wonders  of  the  element ! 

Utter  forth  God,  and  fill  the  hills  with  praise."— Coleridge. 

*•  Good-bye,  proud  world  !  I'm  going  home  : 
Thou  art  not  my  friend,  and  I'm  not  thine. 

Long  through  the  weary  crowds  I  roam, 
A  river-ark  on  the  ocean  brine. 

Long  I've  been  tossed  like  the  driven  foam ; 

But  now,  proud  world,  I'm  going  home." — R.  W.  Emerson. 

This  kind  of  personification  is  the  result  of  strong  emotion 
or  excited  imagination,  and  belongs  peculiarly  to  poetry  and 
oratory. 

§    Il6.    APOSTROPHE. 

Apostrophe  is  an  address  to  the  absent  or  dead,  as  though 
really  present.  It  resembles  personification  of  the  third  de- 
gree, with  which  it  is  frequently  confounded.  It  is  associated 
with  high  emotion,  and  is  chiefly  found  in  poetry  and  oratory. 

**  How  shall  I  know  thee  in  the  sphere  which  keeps 
The  disembodied  spirits  of  the  dead?" — Bryant. 

"  Green  be  the  turf  above  thee. 
Friend  of  my  better  days ; 
None  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee. 
Nor  named  thee  but  to  praise." 

— Fitz-Greene  Halleck. 

Milton's  address  to  Shakespeare  is  a  well-known  instance  : 

"  What  needs  my  Shakespeare  for  his  honored  bones  ? 
The  labor  of  an  age  in  piled  stones  "i 


Dear  son  of  memory,  great  heir  of  fame  !" 
Wordsworth's  sonnet  to  Milton  affords  another  example  : 

♦•  Milton !  thou  shouldst  be  living  at  this  hour. 
England  hath  need  of  thee !" 

This  figure  abounds  in  the  Lycidas  of  Milton,  and  in  Ten- 
nyson's In  Memoriam,  as  in  all  other  cases  when  there  is  a 
direct  address  to  the  dead.  The  invocation  of  the  Muse  in 
poetry  may  also  be  mentioned  as  an  example : 

*'  Of  man's  first  disobedience  .  .  .  sing,  heavenly  muse." 

"Achilles'  wrath,  to 'Greece  the  direful  spring 
Of  woes  unnumbered,  heavenly  goddess,  sing." 


Figures  of  Relativity.  127 

Religious  hymns  exhibit  this  very  frequently,  as — 

"  Thou  art  gone  to  the  grave,  but  we  will  not  deplore  thee." 
"  Sister,  thou  wast  mild  and  lovely." 
"Brother,  thou  hast  gone  to  rest." 

The  same  figure  is  exhibited  in  those  hymns  which  contain 
an  invocation  of  higher  beings  : 

"Ye  principalities  and  powers. 
That  never  tasted  death  ! 
Witness  from  off  your  heavenly  towers 
Our  act  of  Christian  faith." — George  Rawson. 

The  apostrophe  is  found  frequently  in  oratory,  and  is  very 
effective  when  it  is  the  expression  of  fervid  passion  : 

"  I  found  Ireland  on  her  knees.  I  watched  over  her  with  an  eternal  solici- 
tude, and  have  traced  her  progress  from  injuries  to  arms,  and  from  arms  to 
liberty.  Spirit  of  Swift  !  spirit  of  Molyneux  !  your  genius  has  prevailed. 
Ireland  is  now  awaking — in  that  new  character  I  hail  her,  and,  bowing  to  her 
august  presence,  I  say,  Esto  perpttua  /" — Grattan. 

It  is  also  found  in  prose  writing,  where  the  author  is  carried 
away  by  his  own  feelings  and  rises  to  a  more  impassioned 
strain  of  eloquence.  Carlyle  has  frequent  examples  of  this, 
but  none  are  equal  to  the  tender  pathos  and  profound  com- 
passion of  the  description  of  Marie  Antoinette,  in  which  occurs 
the  following  apostrophe  : 

"  There  is  no  heart  to  say,  God  pity  thee !  O  think  not  of  these ; 
think  of  Him  whom  thou  worshippest — the  Crucified — who  also,  treading 
the  wine-press  alone,  fronted  sorrow  still  deeper,  and  triumphed  over  it, 
and  made  it  holy,  and  built  of  it  a  sanctuary  of  sorrow  for  thee  and  all  the 
wretched !" 

The  invocation  of  the  Deity,  and  the  language  of  prayer, 
must  not  be  regarded  as  apostrophe ;  for  in  this  case  the  ad- 
dress is  offered  not  to  the  dead  or  absent,  but  to  the  living  God, 
who  is  ever  present  to  hear  those  who  call  upon  him. 

§    117.    VISION. 

Vision  is  the  narration  of  past  or  absent  scenes  as  though 
actually  occurring  before  us.  It  is  sometimes  closely  allied  to 
the  third  kind  of  personification  and  to  apostrophe.     It  is  a 


128  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

figure  that  may  be  used  to  express  strong  emotion,  or  for  the 
purposes  of  animated  narrative. 

1.  The  most  striking  examples  of  this  figure  are  found  in  con- 
nection with  deep  feeling,  when  the  imagination  is  in  a  state 
of  high  excitement,  and  the  writer  seems  to  have  an  actual 
vision  of  the  scene  which  he  describes.  Apostrophe  is  often 
found  united  with  it.  No  better  examples  of  vision  can  be 
found  than  those  which  occur  in  Byron's  Childe  Harold.  His 
description  of  a  storm  in  the  Alps  is  familiar  to  all  : 

"  The  sky  is  changed !  and  such  a  change  !  O  night, 
And  storm,  and  darkness,  ye  are  wondrous  strong, 
Yet  lovely  in  your  strength,  as  is  the  light 
Of  a  dark  eye  in  woman  !     Far  along. 
From  peak  to  peak,  the  rattling  crags  among. 
Leaps  the  live  thunder,  not  from  one  lone  cloud. 
But  every  mountain  now  hath  found  a  tongue. 
And  Jura  answers  from  her  misty  shroud 
Back  to  the  joyous  Alps,  which  call  to  her  aloud." 

In  the  same  poem  the  descriptions  of  the  Dying  Gladiator, 
the  Laocoon,  St.  Peter's  Cathedral,  the  Falls  of  Velino,  and 
some  others,  afford  striking  examples. 

Vision  is  frequent  in  lyrical  poetry,  particularly  religious 
hymns : 

••  Bound  upon  the  accursed  tree, 
Faint  and  bleeding,  who  is  he  ?" 

*'  These  glorious  forms,  how  bright  they  shine  I 
Whence  all  their  bright  array?" 

This  figure  is  common  in  oratory : 

"  I  see  before  me  the  slaughtered  heaps  of  citizens,  lying  unburied  in  the 
midst  of  their  ruined  country." — Cicero. 

The  higher  order  of  vision  is  not  common  in  ordinary  prose, 
but  when  there  is  deep  excitement  or  strong  emotion  it  is  used 
with  great  effect.  Many  passages  of  this  nature  are  to  be 
found  in  the  works  of  Carlyle. 

2.  Vision  is  also  used  for  purposes  of  animated  narrative. 
Here,  for  the  sake  of  avoiding  monotony,  and  varying  the  ex- 
pression and  style,  the  present  tense  is  employed  instead  of  the 
past,  and  the  scene  is  thus  narrated  as  though  occurring  before 


Figures  of  Relativity.  129 

the  eyes  of  the  writer.  This  use,  of  the  present  tense  for  the 
past  is  very  prevalent  in  Latin  and  Greek  writers.  Livy  in 
particular  is  partial  to  it,  and  it  is  recognized  and  named  as 
the  "  historical  -present."  Carlyle  makes  frequent  use  of  it ; 
and  it  is  employed  largely  by  newspaper  correspondents,  more 
especially'by  Mr.  W.  H.  Russell.  The  following  passage  from 
his  description  of  the  battle  of  Balaklava  will  serve  as  an  ex- 
ample : 

"  With  breathless  suspense  every  one  awaits  the  bursting  of  the  wave 
upon  the  Gallic  rock ;  but  ere  they  come  within  another  hundred  and  fifty 
yards,  another  deadly  volley  flashes  from  the  levelled  rifles,  and  carries 
death  and  terror  into  the  Russians." 

In  the  following  passage  there  is  a  very  beautiful  example 
of  this  kind  of  vision  : 

•'  Time  labors  on — your  skin  glows,  and  your  shoulders  ache.  Your  Arabs 
moan,  your  camels  sigh,  but  conquering  Time  marches  on,  and  by  and  by  the 
descending  sun  has  compassed  the  heaven,  and  now  softly  touches  our  right 
arm,  and  throws  your  lank  shadow  over  the  sand  right  along  on  the  way  for 
Persia  ;  then  again  you  look  upon  his  face,  for  his  power  is  all  veiled  in  his 
beauty,  and  the  redness  of  flames  has  become  the  redness  of  roses  ;  the  fair 
wavy  cloud  that  fled  in  the  morning  now  comes  to  his  sight  once  more — 
comes  blushing,  yet  still  comes  on — comes  burning  with  blushes,  yet  hastens, 
and  clings  to  his  side." — Kinglake. 

§  118.  ALLUSION. 

Allusion  may  be  defined  as  the  reference  to  some  familiar 
event  in  the  past,  or  the  appropriation  of  familiar  words  from 
some  well-known  author,  for  purposes  of  explanation  or  illus- 
tration. This  figure  is  based  upon  the  idea  of  similarity,  and 
may  be  presented  in  three  modes: 

1.  The  direct  allusion ;  as — 

"  The  patience  of  Job  is  proverbial." 

2.  The  allusion  of  comparison ;  as — 

"  Like  Alexander,  he  wept  because  he  had  no  more  worlds  to  conquer." 
"Like  the  musician  at  Alexander's  feast,  it  can  raise  a  mortal  to  the 
skies  ;  but,  like  St.  Cecilia,  it  can  also  bring  an  angel  down." 

3.  The  allusion  by  metaphor;  as — 

"  He  was  the  Achilles  of  the  war." 
*'  They  made  him  their  scapegoat." 


1 30  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

§  119.   HISTORICAL   ALLUSION. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  allusion ;  first,  the  historical ;  and, 
secondly,  the  literary. 

I.  The  historical  allusion  : 

The  allusion  is  said  to  be  historical  when  refereilte  is  made 
to  any  well-known  event  or  character  in  the  past.  It  may 
refer — 

1.  To  history;  as — 

"  Like  rigid  Cincinnatus,  nobly  poor." 

2.  To  fiction;  as — 

"Lady  Macbeth  is  the  Clytemnestra  of  the  modem  drama." 

3.  To  anecdote,  fable,  etc. ;  as — 

"  Like  the  ass  between  two  bundles  of  hay." 
"A  dog-in-the-manger  policy." 

The  following  passages  will  further  illustrate  this  kind  of 
allusion : 

"  When  I  was  a  beggarly  boy, 

And  lived  in  a  cellar  damp, 
I  had  not  a  friend  nor  a  toy, 

But  I  had  Aladdin's  lamp. 
When  I  could  not  sleep  for  cold, 

I  had  fire  enough  in  my  brain; 
And  builded  with  roofs  of  gold 

My  beautiful  castles  in  Spain."— J.  R.  Lowell. 

The  allusions  are,  first,  to  Aladdin  in  the  Arabian  Nights ; 
and,  secondly,  to  the  common  saying,  "  Chateaux  d'Espagne," 
i.e.,"  castles  in  the  air." 

"  For  humanity  sweeps  onward :  where  to-day  the  martyr  stands, 
On  the  morrow  crouches  Judas,  with  the  silver  in  his  hands. 
Far  in  front  the  cross  stands  ready,  and  the  crackling  fagots  burn, 
While  the  hooting  mob  of  yesterday  in  silent  awe  return. 
To  glean  up  the  scattered  fragments  into  history's  golden  urn." 

— J.  R.  Lowell. 
"  I  can  see  my  own  vices  without  heat  in  the  distant  persons  of  Solo- 
mon, Alcibiades,  and  Catiline." — R.  W.  Emerson. 


Figures  of  Relativity.  131 

§  120.   LITERARY   ALLUSION. 

2.  Literary  allusion  is  the  appropriation  of  familiar  words 
from  some  well-known  author,  for  purposes  of  explanation  or 
illustration : 

"  It  may  be  said  of  him  that  he  came,  he  saw,  he  conquered." 
"He  has  fallen  into  the  sere  and  yellow  leaf." 
"  He  has  gone  to  that  bourne  from  which  no  traveller  returns." 
"I'm  sitting  here  waiting  for  the  train,  like  Patience  on  a  monument,  and 
mean  to  let  Patience  have  her  perfect  work." 

"  Arms  and  the  man  whose  reascending  star 
Rose  o'er  an  empire." — Byron. 

"That  shepherd  who  first  taught  the  chosen  seed 
In  the  beginning  how  the  heaven  and  earth 
Rose  out  of  chaos." — Milton. 

The  most  common  sources  of  literary  allusion  may  be 
summed  up  as  follows : 

1.  Ancient  literature:  Homer, Virgil,  Horace. 

2.  Modern  literature:  The  English  Bible;  Shakespeare; 
Milton ;  Pope ;  Robinson  Crusoe ;  Gulliver's  Travels ;  the  Pil- 
grim's Progress;  the  Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments;  Fairy 
tales;  certain  popular  novels,  especially  Scott,  Dickens,  and 
Thackeray. 

3.  Anecdotes,  sayings,  etc. : 

"  He  did  it  with  his  little  hatchet'* 

4.  Sometimes  in  humorous  works  allusions  are  wholly  ficti- 
tious : 

"  As  the  old  woman  says." 

Allusion  is  effective  in  all  kinds  of  literature — the  grave,  the 
gay,  the  lively,  the  severe;  and  ranges  all  the  way  from  the 
sublime  to  the  ridiculous. 

The  English  Bible  is  the  richest  source  of  allusions.  The 
works  of  Burke  and  Macaulay  abound  in  them. 

"  I  am  alone.     I  have  none  to  meet  my  enemies  in  the  gate." — Burke. 

"  Mr.  Speaker,  I  cannot  prevail  on  myself  to  hurry  over  this  great  con- 
sideration. It  is  good  for  us  to  be  here.  We  stand  where  we  have  an  im- 
mense view  of  what  is  and  what  is  past.  Clouds  indeed  and  darkness  rest 
upon  the  future." — Burke. 


132  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

"  The  anathema  maranatha  of  every  fawning  dean." — Macaulay. 

"This  makes  the  character  complete.  Whatsoever  things  are  false, 
whatsoever  things  are  dishonest,  whatsoever  things  are  unjust,  whatsoever 
things  are  impure,  whatsoever  things  are  hateful,  whatsoever  things  are  of 
evil  report— if  there  be  any  vice,  and  if  there  be  any  infamy,  all  these  things 
we  know  were  blended  in  Barere." — Macaul.\y. 

*'  And  O,  when  stoops  on  Judah's  path, 
In  shade  and  storm,  the  frequent  night. 
Be  thou  long-suffering,  slow  to  wrath, 
A  burning  and  a  shining  light" — Scott. 

"  'Tis  a  populous  solitude,  festal,  fearless. 
For  men  of  good-will  prepared. 

That  dty  he  sees  on  whose  golden  walls 

No  light  of  a  rising  sun  or  setting 

Of  moon  or  of  planet  falls ; 

For  the  Lamb  alone  is  the  light  thereof. 

The  city  of  Truth — the  kingdom  of  Love." 

— Sir  Aubrey  de  Vere. 

Gray's  ode  on  the  Progress  of  Poesy  contains  a  prolonged 
literary  allusion,  in  the  second  stanza  of  which  there  is  a  para- 
phrase of  the  opening  lines  of  Pindar's  first  Pythian  ode : 

"  Oh  !  Sovereign  of  the  willing  soul, 
Parent  of  sweet  and  solemn-breathing  airs  I 
Enchanting  shell !  the  sullen  cares 

And  frantic  passions  hear  thy  soft  controL 
On  Thracia's  hills  the  Lord  of  War 
Has  curbed  the  fury  of  his  car, 
And  dropped  his  thirsty  lance  at  thy  command. 
Perching  on  the  sceptred  hand 
Of  Jove,  thy  magic  lulls  the  feathered  king 
With  ruffled  plumes  and  flagging  wing : 
Quenched  in  dark  clouds  of  slumber  li« 
The  terror  of  his  beak,  and  lightnings  of  his  eye." 

"  Pallid  death,  having  seized  upon  the  luckless  Princess  in  her  castle  of 
Ahlden,  presently  pounced  upon  H.  M.  King  George  I.  in  his  travelling 
chariot  on  the  Hanover  road.  What  postilion  can  outride  the  pale  horse- 
man ?" 

Here  the  allusion  is  to  Horace's  "  pallida  mors,"  and  to  the 
"  pale  horse  "  of  the  Apocalypse. 

§   121.   QUOTATION. 

Literary  allusion  and  quotation  must  not  be  confounded. 


Figures  of  Relativity.  133 

A  quotation  is  an  extract  from  any  author,  and  is  formally 
stated  as  such.  An  allusion  appropriates  well-known  words, 
and  incorporates  them  as  one's  own  without  acknowledgment. 
A  quotation  may  be  made  from  any  work ;  an  allusion  must 
refer  to  writings  that  are  familiar  to  all. 

"  Over  all  the  heaven  above,  over  all  the  earth  beneath,  there  was  no 
visible  power  that  could  balk  the  fierce  will  of  the  sun ;  'he  rejoiced  as  a 
strong  man  to  run  a  race,  his  going  forth  was  from  the  end  of  the  heaven, 
and  his  circuit  unto  the  ends  of  it,  and  there  was  nothing  hid  from  the  heat 
thereof.' " — Kinglake. 

The  latter  part  of  the  above  sentence  consists  of  well-known 
words,  and  they  are  presented  as  a  quotation. 
"  The  scholar  in  Chaucer  who  would  rather  have 
.•at  his  beddes  head 
A  twenty  bokes  clothed  in  black  and  red 
Of  Aristotle  and  his  philosophy    • 
Than  robes  rich,  or  fiddle,  or  psaltrie,' 
doubtless  beat  all  our  modern  collectors  in  his  passion  for  reading." — Leigh 
Hunt. 

In  the  above  quotation,  as  also  in  that  which  follows,  the 
words  are  unfamiliar,  but  they  are  presented  in  an  informal 
way,  with  the  ease  and  grace  of  an  allusion. 

"  When  any  one  thinks  he  has  caught  her  (Nature),  it  is  only  a  part  of 
her  drapery  which  she  yields  to  his  clutches,  never  herself.  *  Science,'  says 
the  Persian  mystic,  '  puts  her  finger  on  her  mouth  and  cries  because  the 
mystery  of  life  will  not  reveal  itself.'  " — Dr.  F.  H.  Hedge. 

§  122.   PLAGIARISM. 

Literary  allusion  must  not  be  confounded  with  plagiarism. 

Plagiarism  is  literary  theft;  where  important  ideas  or  ex- 
pressions are  appropriated  from  sources  to  which  it  is  supposed 
that  they  cannot  be  readily  traced,  and  presented  as  the  actual 
work  of  the  appropriator.  In  allusion  the  words  are  well 
known;  they  are  presented  as  such;  there  is  no  possibility  of 
mistake  as  to  their  origin ;  but  in  plagiarism  the  words  are  not 
well  known,  and  the  writer  presents  them  as  his  own. 

§  123.  OTHER    FIGURES. 

There  are  several  other  figures  which  may  be  named  here: 
Syllepsis,  paronomasia,  annominatio,  and  antanaclasis.     These 


134  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

are  all  of  the  nature  of  tropes,  and  by  allowing  some  par- 
ticular term  to  be  taken  in  two  senses  —  literal  or  meta- 
phorical— they  give  rise  to  what  is  called  a  "  play  on  words." 
They  all  have  the  same  general  characteristics,  and  will  be 
considered  farther  on. 

§  124.  IRONY. 

Irony  is  the  use  of  words  whose  literal  meaning  is  contrary 
to  the  real  signification. 

§  125.  SARCASM. 

Sarcasm  is  irony  with  vituperation  directed  generally  against 
personal  opponents. 

§   126.   INNUENDO. 

Innuendo  is  the  employment  of  insinuation  instead  of  direct 
statement 

These  three  figures — irony,  sarcasm,  and  innuendo — are 
sometimes  classified  under  this  head,  and  it  seems  proper  to 
make  some  mention  of  them  here.  They  will,  however,  receive 
a  fuller  consideration  in  connection  with  the  subject  of  the 
ridiculous. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

FIGURES   OF   RELATIVITY  ARISING   FROM  THE   IDEA  OF 
CONTIGUITY. 

§  127.   FIGURES   OF   CONTIGUITY. 

Many  things  which  are  neither  contrasted  nor  similar  are 
often  associated  together  in  the  mind  from  certain  connections 
that  may  exist  between  them,  as  that  of  cause  and  effect,  ante- 
cedent and  consequent,  and  others.  Washington  may  thus  be 
associated  with  patriotism ;  a  king  with  his  crown ;  a  cup  with 
its  contents.  By  this  process  of  association  one  of  two  things 
may  be  taken  for  the  other,  and  this  gives  rise  to  a  new  class 
of  figures.  The  relation  between  such  objects,  upon  which 
these  figures  are  founded,  may  be  designated  contiguity. 


Figures  of  Relativity,  135 

§  128.  SYNECDOCHE. 

Synecdoche  is  a  figure  which  consists  in  the  substitution  for 
one  another  of  words  which  indicate  the  relations  of  principal 
and  subordinate;  as,  when  a  part  is  put  for  the  whole,  or  the 
whole  for  a  part;  species  for  genus,  or  genus  for  species;  the 
concrete  for  the  abstract,  or  the  abstract  for  the  concrete. 

In  this  figure  we  may  observe  two  general  divisions:  first, 
where  the  definite  is  used  for  the  indefinite  ;  and,  secondly, 
where  the  indefinite  is  used  for  the  definite. 

I.  Where  the  definite  is  used  for  the  indefinite. 

1.  A  part  is  put  for  the  whole.  Thus  we  say  "a  fleet  of  fifty 
sail."  "Sail"  is  a  part  of  a  ship,  and  is  here  used  to  signify 
that  to  which  it  belongs. 

"Hands"  is  used  to  represent  "men,"  as  in  Dibdin's  words, 
"the  call  to  pipe  all  hands."  "Souls"  is  used  in  the  same 
way,  as,  "  five  hundred  souls,"  for  five  hundred  men.  "  Wave  " 
is  used  for  sea;  as — 

"  Though  the  night  shades  are  gone,  yet  a  vapor  dull 
Bedims  the  wave  so  beautiful." — Wilson. 

Further  examples  may  be  found  in  the  following:  "Sixteen 
summers"  for  "sixteen  years,"  or  "sixty  winters"  for  "sixty 
years;"  "day"  for  "life;"  "horse"  and  "foot"  for  "cavalry" 
and  "  infantry ;"  "  a  force  of  ten  thousand  bayonets "  for 
"men." 

2.  The  species  is  put  for  the  genus;  as,  "our  daily  bread," 
where  "  bread  "  represents  all  "  food."  The  words  "  panem  et 
circenses,"  "  bread  and  the  games,"  have  come  to  signify  em- 
ployment and  amusement  for  the  proletariate.  "Cut-throat" 
represents  "  murderer." 

3.  The  concrete  is  put  for  the  abstract ;  as,  "They  that  take 
the  sword  shall  perish  by  the  sword."  "  Sword  "  is  used  here 
for  "war."  "All  the  father  yearns  within  his  heart;"  "father" 
means  paternal  love.  To  "  play  the  fool  "  means  to  simulate 
folly,  and  to  "  play  the  man  "  to  be  valiant.  "  The  lion  shall 
lie  down  with  the  lamb"  means  the  fierce  shall  be  at  peace 
with  the  gentle. 

4.  Proper  names  are  used  to  designate  a  class.  This  is 
called  antonomasia. 


136  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Thus  a  rich  man  is  called  a  "  CrcEsus  "  or  a  "  Rothschild." 
The  "  new  Cassandra  "  signifies  a  prophet  of  evil.  This  form 
of  synecdoche  is  well  illustrated  in  the  following  lines : 

"  Some  village  Hampden,  that  with  dauntless  breast 
The  little  tyrant  of  his  fields  withstood, 
Some  mute  inglorious  Milton  here  may  rest, 
Some  Cromwell,  guiltless  of  his  country's  blood." — Gray. 

5.  An  individual  is  designated  by  some  circumstance  con- 
nected with  him  instead  of  his  own  proper  name ;  as,  the 
"  Prince  of  Roman  Eloquence,"  for  Cicero ;  the  "  Father  of 
Epic  Poetry,"  for  Homer;  the  "Morning  Star  of  the  Reforma- 
tion," for  Wycliffe ;  the  "  Father  of  English  Song,"  for  Chaucer; 
the  "  Swan  of  Avon,"  for  Shakespeare.  This  is  very  similar  to 
the  kind  just  mentioned,  and  is  also  called  antonomasia.  Ex- 
amples are  found  in  the  following  passages : 

"  Last  came,  and  last  did  go. 
The  pilot  of  the  Galilean  lake."— Milton. 

"  The  light  which  the  blind  old  man  of  Sdo  had  kindled  in  Greece  shed 
its  radiance  over  Italy." — Wayland. 

II.  The  second  division  of  synecdoche  is  where  the  in- 
definite is  put  for  the  definite. 

1.  The  whole  is  put  for  a  part,  as  "America"  for  the  United 
States.     The  "  Old  World  "  for  Europe. 

"  Belinda  smiled,  and  all  the  world  was  gay." 

In  this,  all  the  world  represents  the  smaller  world  of  Belinda. 
Similar  examples  of  this  figure  may  be  found  in  the  expres- 
sions "everybody,"  "every  one,"  "his  whole  time,"  "all  the 
time." 

2.  The  abstract  is  used  for  the  concrete,  as,  "  her  beauty  and 
her  chivalry;"  the  concrete  for  which  is  beautiful  women  and 
brave  men. 

"  There  Honor  comes,  a  pilgrim  gray." 

•'  The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  power, 
And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave." 

"Talking  age." 

In  this  form  of  synecdoche  there  is  usually  some  degree  of 
personification. 


Figures  of  Relativity.  137" 

The  use  of  the  abstract  for  the  concrete  is  by  some  set  down 
as  a  distinct  figure  under  the  name  of  antimeria. 

§  129.  ANTIMERIA — ENALLAGE. 

Antimeria  means  the  substitution  of  one  part  of  speech  for 
another.     It  is  also  called  enallage. 

1.  The  use  of  an  adjective  for  an  adverb: 

"  Loud  roared  the  blast" 

"A  braying  ass 
Did  sing  most  loud  and  clear." — COWPER. 

2.  The  use  of  a  noun  as  a  verb : 

"  To  outherod  Herod."     "  A  hectoring  fellow." 

"  Whether  the  charmer  sinner  it,  or  saint  it, 
If  folly  grow  romantic,  I  must  paint  it." — Pope. 

§   130.    METONYMY. 

Metonymy  is  the  substitution  for  one  another  of  words  which 
indicate  chiefly  the  relations  of  cause  and  sign.  The  following 
is  a  summary  of  the  various  applications  of  this  figure. 

1.  Cause  and  effect. 

The  cause  is  put  for  the  effect ;  as — 

"With  thun^ier  from  her  native  oak, 

She  quells  the  floods  below."— Campbell. 

Here  oak  represents  ships-of  war,  the  material  standing  for 
the  things  made  from  it. 

The  effect  is  put  for  the  cause ;  as — 

"  Can  gray  hairs  make  folly  venerable  ?" — ^Junius. 

"Gray  hairs"  is  here  used  for  old  age. 

"  By  the  sweat  of  thy  brow  thou  shalt  eat  bread." 

"  Sweat"  is  used  for  "labor." 

2.  The  sign  is  used  for  the  thing  signified,  as,  "crown," 
"sceptre,"  "throne,"  etc.,  for  "king;"  "red-coats,"  for  "sol- 
diers;" "toga,"  for  "civilians." 

"  Confusion  on  thy  banners  wait" 
Here  "banners"  represents  "soldiers"  or  "army." 


138  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

3.  The  container  is  used  for  the  thing* contained ;  as,  "  cup," 
for  "drink;"  a  "country,"  for  its  "people;"  "heaven,"  for 
"God." 

•'  Large  was  his  bounty,  and  his  soul  sincere, 

Heaven  did  a  recompense  as  largely  send." — Gray. 

"  He  who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash." — Shakespeare. 

4.  The  instrument  is  put  for  the  agent;  as,  "  the  sword  of  the 
law,"  for  the  "magistrate;"  "bayonets,"  for  "soldiers." 

5.  The  author  is  mentioned  instead  of  his  works ;  as — 

"  Plato  says."     "  We  find  in  Bacon." 

6.  A  thing  is  represented  by  some  quality  appropriate  to  it : 

"The  pale  realms  of  shade,  where  each  shall  take 
His  chamber  in  the  silent  halls  of  death." — Bryant.- 

§   131.    METALEPSIS. 

Metalepsis  is  founded  on  the  relation  between  antecedent 
and  consequent.  The  word  which  forms  this  trope  has  always 
a  suggested  meaning,  which  gives  it  its  full  force : 

"  Fuit  Ilium"—"  Troy  has  been." 

This  suggests  the  meaning  that  Troy  is  no  more. 
"' Vixi "— "  I  have  lived." 

That  is,  the  best  part  of  the  speaker's  life  is  over. 

The  phrase  "  sharp-pointed  islands"  is  noticed  by  Quintilian 
as  suggesting  "  swift  islands,"  and  involving  the  idea  of"  ships." 

The  term  "wooden  walls"  is  of  this  nature,  and  implies  the 
defensive  character  of  a  fleet 

Metalepsis  is  of  no  value  whatever  unless  it  is  taken  in  this 
sense  as  suggesting  a  meaning,  in  which  case  it  becomes  almost 
identical  with  another  form  of  expression,  sometimes  set  down 
as  a  separate  figure  under  the  name  significatio. 

In  this  the  meaning  is  implied  rather  than  asserted,  and  may 
be  illustrated  by  the  following  from  Waller,  in  which  we  find  a 
lover's  extravagant  estimation  of  his  lady  : 

"Give  me  but  what  this  ribbon  bound, 
Take  all  the  rest  the  sun  goes  round." 


Figures  of  Relativity.  139 

Byron  in  the  following  lines  suggests  the  total  destruction 
of  the  host  of  Xerxes  : 

"  He  counted  them  at  break  of  day, 
But  when  the  sun  set  where  were  they  !" 

In  the  same  way  Wordsworth  describes  the  desolation  of 
bereavement  : 

"  But  she  is  in  her  grave,  and  oh ! 
The  difference  to  me !" 

An  additional  illustration  may  be  given  from  the  old  ballad 
of  Sir  Patrick  Spence  : 

**0  our  Scots  nobles  were  right  laith 
To  wet  their  cork-heeled  shoon. 
But  lang  ere  a'  the  play  were  played 
Their  hats  they  swam  aboon." 

§   132.    PERIPHRASIS. 

Periphrasis  is  also  known  as  circumlocution;  but  the  term 
periphrasis  generally  refers  to  those  cases  where  the  figure  is 
used  with  effect,  while  ''circumlocution"  refers  to  its  faulty  use. 

Periphrasis  may  be  defined  as  naming  a  thing  indirectly  by 
means  of  some  well-known  attribute,  or  characteristic,  or  at- 
tendant circumstance. 

**  It  is  the  hour  when  from  the  boughs 
The  nightingale's  high  note  is  heard." — Byron. 

Here  evening  is  mentioned  by  means  of  its  attendant  cir- 
cumstance, the  song  of  the  nightingale. 

"But  a  Disposer  whose  power  we  are  little  able  to  resist,  and  whose 
wisdom  it  behooves  us  not  at  all  to  dispute,  has  ordained  it  in  another 
manner." — Burjce. 

Here  the  Deity  is  mentioned  in  an  indirect  way  by  means  of 
his  attributes. 

"  The  man  who  has  once  murdered  another  in  a  fit  of  insanity  indicates 
himself  as  a  proper  person  to  be  held  in  restraint,  until  there  is  a  moral  cer- 
tainty that  he  will  not  repeat  the  offence  ;  and  this  moral  certainty  can  only 
be  reached  when  the  lid  of  his  coffin  is  screwed  down." 

These  last  words  are  used  periphrastically  for  "  when  he  is 
dead." 

G 


I40  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Periphrasis  is  used : 

1.  For  embellishment.  Poetry  abounds  in  this.  It  is  found 
in  common  with  such  subjects  as  "  dawn  of  day,"  "  even- 
ing," "night,"  "storms,"  and  other  things  of  common  occur- 
rence, which  receive  new  beauty  by  being  described  at  greater 
length. 

2.  For  emphasis.  Writers  sometimes  employ  the  periphrasis 
for  the  sake  of  presenting  a  thing  in  a  new  light,  so  as  to  make 
it  more  impressive. 

§   133.    EUPHEMISM. 

Euphemism  is  a  form  of  periphrasis.  It  is  the  mention  of 
disagreeable  things  by  agreeable  names.  Examples  may  be 
found  in  such  words  and  phrases  as,  "  If  anything  should  hap- 
pen," to  indicate  "  death ;"  "  he  was  unable  to  meet  his  en- 
gagements," for  "  he  failed ;"  "  untidy,"  for  "  dirty;"  "  unfortu- 
nate," for  "  dishonest." 

The  ancients  called  the  left  hand  the  "  better,"  the  "  well- 
named"  hand.  "Taxes"  have  sometimes  been  called  "sub- 
scriptions;" "executioners,"  "public  servants;"  and  in  the 
American  war  fugitive  slaves  were  well  known  as  "contra- 
bands." 

Certain  practices  of  dishonest  tradesmen  are  indicated  in 
the  following  passage  : 

"  The  glamour  of  the  salesroom,  the  too  rosy  light  which  it  is  the  natural 
tendency  of  the  seller  to  throw  on  what  he  offers  for  sale." 

"  Convey  him  to  the  Tower.  * 
Convey  !    Oh  good  !    Conveyers  are  you  all." 

—Shakespeare. 

§   134.    HYPOCORISMA. 

A  certain  kind  of  euphemism  is  sometimes  called  "hypocoris' 
ma."  This  is  the  application  of  decorous  names  to  actions  or 
things  which  are  base  or  bad.  An  immense  number  of  collo- 
quialisms and  slang  expressions  consist  of  this  softening  down 
of  evil  and  villany. 

§    135.    LITOTES. 

In  litotes  a  statement  is  made  by  means  of  the  negation  of 
its  opposite  ;  as — 


Figures  of  Relativity.  141 

"The  man  is  no  fool,"  for  "the  man  is  wise." 
"To  thee  I  call,  but  with  no  friendly  voice" — /.^., unfriendly. 
"  Immortal  names, 
That  were  not  born  to  die" — i.e.,  that  will  live. 
"  It  created  no  little  excitement" — /.  e.,  much  excitement. 
"There  was  no  small  stir" — i.e.,  much  stir. 

"  I  will  not  say  that  the  authorities  of  the  world,  charged  with  the  care  of 
their  country  and  people,  had  not  a  right  to  confine  him  [Napoleon]  for  life, 
as  a  lion  or  a  tiger,  on  the  principle  of  self-preservation." — ^Jefferson. 

"  I  will  not  say  that  they  had  not  a  right,"  is  about  equal  to 
saying  that  "  they  had  a  right." 

"  I  speak  within  bounds  when  I  say  that  the  British  traveller  is  not  ex- 
ceptionally noted,  in  any  part  of  the  world,  for  the  gentle  humility  with 
which  he  submits  to  the  extortions  and  other  disagreeable  things  incident 
to  a  tourist's  life."— /'a//  Mall  Gazette. 

This  means  that  he  is  noted  for  his  impatience. 
Innuendo  is  very  often  produced  by  this  figure : 

"  Mr. is  allowed  to  hold  this  large  sum  without  paying  one  dollar  of 

interest     I  do  not  think  he  is  likely  to  go  into  bankruptcy,  whoever  else  is." 

It  is  here  insinuated  that  the  person  referred  to  has  made 
money  by  this  particular  transaction. 

§   136.    EXEMPLUM. 

There  is  no  way  in  which  a  thing  can  be  stated  more  clearly 
and  explicitly  than  where  general  truths  are  illustrated  by  partic- 
ular examples.  The  definite  is  always  more  forcible  than  the 
indefinite;  but  when  both  are  united,  the  effect  is  still  stronger. 
This  union  is  effected  when  the  indefinite  appears  first  in  the 
enunciation  of  a  general  statement,  which  is  followed  immedi- 
ately by  particular  statements  in  the  shape  of  examples.  To 
this  is  given  the  nanie  of  "  exemplum." 

"  A  great  writer  is  a  great  benefactor.  Thackeray  has  caused  many  happy 
hours,  and  the  man  who  has  read  Pickwick  has  received  real  joy  and  in- 
struction." 

Here  the  first  sentence  contains  the  general  statement ;  the 
second  contains  the  examples,  />.,  Thackeray  and  Pickwick. 

"  A  man  always  acts  from  self-interest.  But  it  is  impossible  to  reason 
with  certainty  from  what  we  take  to  be  his  interest  to  his  actions.  One  man 
goes  without  his  dinner,  that  he  may  add  a  shilling  to  a  hundred  thousand 


142  Elements  of  RJietoric, 

pounds ;  another  runs  in  debt  to  give  balls  and  masquerades,  One  man 
cuts  his  father's  throat  to  get  possession  of  his  old  clothes  ;  another  hazards 
his  own  life  to  save  that  of  an  enemy.  One  man  volunteers  on  a  forlorn 
hope ;  another  is  drummed  out  of  a  regiment  for  cowardice.  Each  of  these 
men  has  no  doubt  acted  from  self-interest." — Macaulay. 

Here  the  general  statement  is  enunciated  in  the  opening 
sentence.     The  others  contain  particular  examples. 

"  Why  should  all  virtue  work  in  one  and  the  same  way  ?  Why  should 
all  give  dollars  ?  It  is  very  inconvenient  to  us  country-folk,  and  we  do  not 
think  that  any  good  will  come  of  it.  We  have  not  dollars.  Merchants 
have.  Let  them  give  them.  Farmers  will  give  corn.  Poets  will  sing. 
Women  will  sew.  Laborers  will  lend  a  hand.  The  children  will  bring 
flowers."— Emerson. 

Here  the  general  proposition  is  that  pecuniary  contributions 
should  not  be  expected  from  all  classes;  after  which  follow 
certain  special  statements  as  to  the  modes  by  which  different 
classes  may  render  assistance. 

This  figure  is  often  very  effective  in  descriptive  writing : 

"  My  beloved  spake,  and  said  unto  me. 
Arise,  my  love,  my  fair  one,  and  come  away: 
For  lo !   the  winter  is  past. 
The  rain  is  over  and  gone ; 
The  flowers  appear  on  the  earth ; 
The  time  of  the  singing  of  birds  has  come, 
And  the  voice  of  the  turtle  is  heard  in  the  land ; 
The  fig-tree  putteth  forth  her  green  leaves, 
And  the  vines  with  the  tender  grape  perfume  the  air. 
Arise,  my  love,  my  fair  one,  and  come  away." 

Here  the  general  statement,  "  the  winter  is  past,"  is  follow- 
ed by  a  series  of  particulars  which  give  a  most  vivid  impres- 
sion of  the  advent  of  spring. 

"  Now  came  still  evening  on,  and  twilight  gray 
Had  in  her  sober  livery  all  things  clad ; 
Silence  accompanied ;  for  beast  and  bird, 
They  to  their  grassy  couch,  these  to  their  nests, 
Were  slunk,  all  but  the  wakeful  nightingale ; 
She  all  night  long  her  amorous  descant  sung." — MiLTON. 

Here  there  is  first  the  general  announcement  of  evening, 
after  which  follows  an  enumeration  of  particulars,  descriptive 
of  the  subject. 


Figures  of  Relativity,  143 

§    137.    EPITHETS. 

Epithets  may  be  considered  as  figures  of  contiguity,  since 
they  depend  upon  the  association  of  things  with  their  appro- 
priate qualities. 

An  epithet  is  a  word  joined  to  another  in  order  to  explain 
its  character;  as,  "  the  azure  sky;"  "  the  briny  deep ;"  "William 
the  Conqueror;"  "Stonewall  Jackson." 

Epithets  are  of  two  kinds,  according  as  they  refer  to  what 
has  been  called  the  quid  or  the  quale;  or,  in  other  words,  the 
nature  of  a  thing  or  the  character  of  a  thing.  These  are  named 
respectively  substantive  and  attributive  epithets. 

1.  Substantive  epithets  indicate  what  the  thing  is,  and  in- 
clude all  titles,  surnames,  nicknames,  and  other  special  desig- 
nations by  which  the  nature  of  a  thing  may  be  stated. 

"  O  Rome,  my  country,  city  of  the  soul !" — Byron. 

"  The  Niobe  of  nations  !" — Byron. 

"Sweetest  Shakespeare,  Fancy's  child." — Milton. 

In  these  examples  the  epithets  "  City  of  the  Soul,"  "  Niobe," 
"  Fancy's  Child,"  are  special  designations,  pointing  out  some- 
thing in  the  nature  of  the  subjects  to  which  they  are  applied. 
They  are  all  of  the  nature  of  names. 

In  such  expressions  as  "  Charles  Martel  " — "  the  Hammer," 
"  Ethelred  the  Unready,"  "  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion,"  the  epi- 
thets are  like  surnames. 

'    In  the  following  passage  there  is  a  series  of  epithets  of  the 
same  kind  : 

"  O  Caledonia !  stern  and  wild. 
Meet  nurse  for  a  poetic  child ! 
Land  of  brown  heath  and  shaggy  wood ; 
Land  of  the  mountain  and  the  flood ; 
Land  of  my  sires  !" 

2.  Attributive  epithets  indicate  what  the  thing  is  like.  Sub- 
stantive epithets  have  the  force  of  substantives,  and  may  be  re- 
solved into  names  or  titles;  attributive  epithets  have  an  ad- 
jective force,  and  indicate  qualities.  The  following  are  ex- 
amples : 

"The  young-eyed  cherubim." — Milton. 


144  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

"The  torrent's  sounding  shore." — ScoTT. 
"  Care-encumbered  men."— Longfellow. 

Th*ey  are  very  numerous  in  the  following  passage  : 

"For  who,  to  dumb  forgetfulness  a  prey, 

This  pleasing,  anxious  being  e'er  resigned, 
Left  the  warm  precincts  of  the  cheerful  day. 
Nor  cast  one  longing,  lingering  look  behind." — Gray. 

§   138.    IMPORTANCE   OF    EPITHETS. 

Epithets  are  of  great  importance  in  literature,  and  are  often 
capable  of  conveying  an  impression  with  a  beauty,  a  directness, 
and  a  force  that  can  be  attained  in  no  other  way.  Their  chief 
purposes  may  be  summed  up  as  follows: 

1.  To  describe  a  character : 

"  Wordsworth,  the  high-priest  of  Nature." 
"  Washington,  the  Father  of  his  country." 

2.  To  paint  a  scene : 

"  Wind-swept  citadel." 
"  Sea-girt  Salamis." 

3.  To  suggest  ideas : 

**  Winged  words." 

"  Myriad  summits,  old  in  story." 

§  139.   POPULARITY   OF   EPITHETS. 

The  love  of  epithets  is  universal,  and  the  use  of  this  figure 
is  in  the  highest  degree  popular.  Its  extended  application 
may  be  seen  in  the  following  summary : 

1.  Most  countries  have  some  epithet,  commonly  applied,  by 
which  their  nature  is  described — "  La  belle  France  ;"  "  Merrie 
England;"  "Old  England;"  "Scotland,  the  land  o'  cakes;" 
"  The  Emerald  Isle  ;"  "  Germany,  the  Vaterland  ;"  "  Classic 
Italy;"  "Palestine,  the  Holy  Land;"  "Holy  Russia;"  "The 
Sunny  South;"  "The  Frozen  North." 

2.  The  same  is  true  with  regard  to  cities.  All  those  of  Italy 
have  well-known  epithets  ;  as,  "  Genoa  the  Superb  ;"  "  Florence 
the  Fair;"  "Naples the  Captivating;"  "  Rome  the  Magnificent." 
This  fashion  is  common  in  the  United  States ;  as,  "  The  Em- 


Figures  of  Relativity.  145 

pire  City  ;"  "  City  of  Notions;"  "  City  of  Brotherly  Love  ;"  "The 
Monumental  City;"  "The  Crescent  City;"  "Mound  City;" 
"  Lake  City  ;"  "  Porkopolis,"  etc. 

3.  Rivers  have  their  peculiar  epithets  ;  as,  "  The  Yellow 
Tiber;"  "Father  Thames:"  "The  Father  of  Waters"  (Missis- 
sippi) ;  "La  belle  Riviere"  (Ohio),  etc. 

4.  In  many  systems  of  religion  epithets  hold  a  prominent 
place  as  applied  to  the  objects  of  worship.  Thus,  in  classical 
mythology,  Jupiter  had  many  names,  such  as  "  Tonans,"  "  Plu- 
vius,"  "  Olympian,"  "  Greatest  and  Best ;"  while  all  the  principal 
deities  had  similar  titles.  Among  Christians  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  communion,  the  Virgin  Mary  and  the  patron  saints  are 
known  by  many  terms  of  endearment. 

5.  The  application  of  epithets  to  men  has  always  been  com- 
mon. In  the  names  applied  to  the  Carlovingian  kings  the  his- 
tory of  the  Franks  is  summed  up ;  as,  "  Karl  the  Hammer ;" 
"Pepin  the  Short;"  "Karl  the  Great;"  "Karl  the  Bald;" 
"  Karl  the  Fat ;"  "  Karl  the  Simple."  A  summary  of  part  of 
English  history  may  also  be  found  in  the  surnames  of  the  early 
English  and  Norman  kings.  The  influence  of  epithets  applied 
to  great  men  is  as  strong  in  modern  times.  Louis  XIV. 
was  "  Le  Grand  Monarque  ;"  Frederick  the  Great,  "  Father 
Fritz  ;"  Napoleon, "  Le  Petit  Corporal ;"  Wellington, "  the  Iron 
Duke." 

6.  Many  famous  sayings  owe  all  their  force  to  this  figure. 
Nicholas  of  Russia  applied  to  Turkey  the  epithet  which  that 
country  has  retained  ever  since,  "  the  Sick  Man  of  Europe ;" 
Bismarck  announced  his  intention  to  adopt  "  a  blood  and  iron  " 
policy ;  Seward  hoped  that  the  Southern  War  would  be  "  short, 
sharp,  and  decisive." 

This  subject  may  be  considered  with  reference  to  poetry  and 
prose,  of  which  the  former  will  be  noticed  first. 

§  140.  EPITHETS    IN    POETRY. 

Epithets  are  prominent  in  the  poetry  of  all  nations,  but  in 
some  they  have  far  more  importance  than  in  others.  Thus  in 
the  modern  Persian,  Sir  William  Jones  says  that  poets  not  un- 
frequently  fill  whole  verses  with  them ;  as — 

"  A  damsel  with  a  face  like  the  moon,  scented  like  musk,  a  ravisher  of 
hearts,  delighting  the  soul,  beguiling  the  senses,  beautiful  as  the  full  moon." 


146  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

Anglo-Saxon  poetry  is  characterized  by  the  liberal  use  of 
epithets,  indeed,  they  are  multiplied  to  such  an  extent  that 
they  often  obscure  the  meaning.  The  following  passage  will 
illustrate  this : 

"  Then  was  the  glorious  spirit  of  the  warder  of  heaven 
Borne  over  the  deep  with  great  speed ; 
The  creator  of  angels,  the  distributer  of  light,  bade 
Light  come  forth  over  the  wide  abyss. 
Quickly  was  fulfilled  the  high  king's  behest. 
For  him  was  holy  light  produced  over  the  waste, 
As  the  creator  commanded. 
Then  the  triumphant  ruler  sundered 
Over  the  water-flood  light  from  darkness. 
Shade  from  brightness. 

The  distributer  of  life  created  names  for  both ; 
Through  the  Lord's  word  light  was  first  named  day. 
The  teeming  time  well  pleased  the  Master  at  the  beginning." 

In  the  space  of  a  few  lines  the  poet  speaks  of  God  by  no 
less  than  nine  different  epithets ;  as,  "  the  glorious  spirit  of  the 
warder  of  heaven  ;"  "  the  creator  of  angels  ;"  "  the  distributer 
of  light;"  "the  high  king;"  "the  creator;"  "the  triumphant 
ruler ;"  "  the  distributer  of  life ;"  "  the  Lord ;"  "  the  Master." 

In  Greek  poetry  ^schylus  is  distinguished  for  the  lavish  use 
of  epithets.  One  of  these  has  come  into  world-wide  use — 
dyt'ipi^fiov  yiXarr^a — the  innumerable,  or  infinite  laughter  of  the 
ocean  waves.  In  another  well-known  passage  he  characterizes 
Helen  as  the  bride  of  the  spear,  and  the  object  of  strife,  a  hell 
to  men,  a  hell  to  ships,  a  hell  to  cities ;  and  again,  speaking 
of  the  same  Helen,  he  says  : 

"  There  arrived  at  Ilium  the  spirit  of  a  breathless  calm,  a  gentle  idol 
of  wealth,  darting  the  tender  shaft  from  her  eyes,  the  soul-piercing  flower 
of  love — " 

Homer,  the  father  of  epic  poetry,  may  also  be  called  the 
father  of  epithets ;  for  nowhere  does  this  figure  appear  with 
such  a  blending  of  beauty  and  energ}'  as  in  the  Homeric 
poems.  Every  god,  every  hero,  every  scene  has  its  own  dis- 
tinguishing epithet,  so  well  applied  that  it  is  always  afterwards 
associated  with  the  subject.  They  all  show  such  picturesque 
force  that  his  scenes  live,  his  battles  are  fought  out  before  the 
mind,*the  ocean  roars,  the  arrows  of  Apollo  twang ;  we  behold 
the  city,  the  sea,  the  plain,  the  fleet,  the  counsels  of  heroes. 


Figures  of  Relativity.  147 

Zeus  is  " cloud-compelling,"  "wide-seeing,"  "cegis-bearing," 
Hera  is  "ox-eyed"  (large-eyed,  or  soft-eyed),  and  "venerable  ;" 
Athena  is  "blue-eyed;"  Apollo  is  "far-darting,"  and  also 
"  bearer  of  the  silver  bow ;"  Poseidon  is  "  earth-shaking ;" 
Hephaeston  is  "skilled  in  art;"  Thetis  is  "  silver -footed;" 
Aphrodite  is  "smiling;"  Agamemnon  is  "the  king  of  men," 
and  "  wide-ruling  ;"  Achilles,  "  swift-footed." 

Hector  has  perhaps  the  finest,  the  most  magnificent  of  all 
the  epithets — Ko^v^awXo^ — "helm-nodding,"  or  "  Hector  of  the 
glancing  helm." 

Words  with  Homer  are  "winged;"  men  are  "articulate-speak- 
ing ;"  and  never  has  any  epithet  been  given  to  the  sea  which 
can  equal  the  sonorous  pomp  and  power  of  sound  and  mean- 
ing which  are  in  his  famous  Tro\v<p\otal^oio  ^aXaaarfQ. 

In  English  literature  we  may  find  in  Shakespeare  the  same 
pre-eminence  in  the  use  of  epithets  which  he  possesses  in  other 
things,  the  same  versatility,  and,  what  is  more  to  the  point,  the 
same  precision.  The  "multitudinous"  sea  is,  perhaps,  as  good 
a  rival  to  Homer's  polyphloisboian  epithet  as  the  English  lan- 
guage can  furnish.  His  works  are  full  of  such  expressions  as 
"  contentious  waves  ;"  "  black-browed  night ;"  "  cloud-capp'd 
towers;"  "unsubstantial  pageant;"  "airy  nothings;"  "mur- 
muring surge  ;"  "unnumbered  idle  pebbles." 

Milton's  epithets  are  like  himself,  Miltonic ;  that  is  to  say, 
they  are  less  versatile  than  Shakespeare's,  but  pre-eminent  for 
perfect  music,  beauty,  and  grandeur.  £.^.,  "Gay-enamelled 
colors;"  "wasteful  deep;"  "gentle  gales,  fanning  their  odorif- 
erous wings ;"  "  ponderous  shield,  ethereal  temper,  massy,  large, 
and  round."  In  these  we  see  Milton's  chief  characteristics ; 
but  if  any  one  passage  may  be  taken  to  indicate  Miltonic  epi- 
thets, no  better  one  could  be  found  than  the  following : 

"  Where  the  bright  seraphim,  in  burning  row, 
Their  loud,  uplifted,  angel  trumpets  blow." 

Dryden's  epithets  exhibit  a  strong  grasp  of  the  subject 
m  a  general  way.  In  painting  a  scene  he  uses  descriptive 
terms  that  are  vigorous  and  sonorous ;  but  he  does  not 
often  make  use  of  any  that  are  remarkably  characteristic. 
In  the  following  passage  Dryden  is  seen  at  his  best  in  this 
respect : 

G  2 


148  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

•'  The  waves  behind  impel  the  waves  before. 
Wide-rolling,  foaming  high,  and  tumbling  on  the  shore." 

The  native  acuteness  and  precision  of  Pope  caused  him  to 
employ  epithets  with  fine  discrimination,  and  his  love  for  an- 
tithesis led  him  to  bring  out  their  force  by  balancing  one  against 

another  : 

"  He  can't  be  wrong,  whose  life  is  in  the  right" 
"  The  wisest,  brightest,  meanest  of  mankind." 

In  the  case  of  Pope  it  is  generally  the  antithesis  that  is  im- 
pressive, and  not  any  particular  epithet. 

Gray  indulges  in  this  figure  to  a  great  extent.  He  is  accused 
by  some  critics  of  having  used  it  to  excess  in  his  Elegy ;  but 
this  poem  is  so  universally  beloved  that  the  critics  are  listened 
to  with  impatience.  One  critic  went  so  far  as  to  propose  leav- 
ing out  the  epithets  altogether.     For  example  : 

"  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea. 
The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way. 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

"  Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight, 
And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds, 
Save  where  the  beetle  wheels  his  droning  flight. 
And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds." 

By  omitting  the  epithets,  Gray's  Elegy  was  made  by  his  critic 
to  assume  the  following  form  : 

"  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  day, 
The  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea. 
The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  me. 

"  Now  fades  the  landscape  on  the  sight. 
And  all  the  air  a  stillness  holds, 
Save  where  the  beetle  wheels  his  flight, 
And  tinklings  lull  the  folds." 

This  critic  has  furnished  the  best  answer  possible  to  his  own 
charge  of  an  excess  of  epithets  in  this  poem.  Gray's  epithets 
are  always  chosen  with  care,  and  a  large  majority  exhibit  the 
character  of  onomatopoeia ;  that  is,  a  resemblance  between  the 
sound  of  the  word  and  the  thing  signified. 

The  epithets  of  Collins  have  the  same  characteristics  as 
those  of  Gray,  namely,  care,  precision,  and  onomatopoeia  : 


Figures  of  Relativity.  149 

"With  woful  measure  wan  despair, 
Low  sullen  sounds  his  grief  beguiled." 

"The  weak-eyed  bat. 
With  short,  shrill  shriek,  flits  by  on  leathern  wing ; 
Or  where  the  beetle  winds 
His  small,  but  sullen  horn." 

The  epithets  of  Byron  exhibit  vigor,  but  never  strike  the 
mind  by  their  superior  appHcability.  Shelley,  on  the  contrary, 
surpasses  all  poets  since  Shakespeare  and  Milton  in-  this  re- 
spect. Like  those  of  his  great  predecessors,  his  epithets  are  so 
precise  and  so  felicitous  that  they  seem  the  best  possible  under 
the  circumstances : 

"  The  point  of  one  white  star  is  quivering  still 
Deep  in  the  orange  light  of  widening  morn 
Beyt)nd  the  purple  mountains :  through  a  chasm 
Of  wind-divided  mist  the  darker  lake 
Reflects  it  j  now  it  wanes ;  it  gleams  again. 


Beneath  is  a  wide  plain  of  billowy  mist, 
Encinctured  by  the  dark  and  blooming  forests. 
Dim  twilight  lawns  and  stream-illumined  caves. 
And  wind-enchanted  shapes  of  wandering  mist ; 
And  far  on  high  the  keen  sky-cleaving  mountains 
From  icy  spires  of  sunlike  radiance  fling 
The  dawn." 

A  poet  of  lesser  intensity  of  passion  and  delicacy  of  imagina- 
tion will  rest  content  with  epithets  that  may  express  qualities 
in  general  ;  but  it  is  a  sign  and  proof  of  the  highest  order  of 
poetic  genius  to  be  able  to  see  into  the  very  heart  of  a  thing, 
and  by  one  felicitous  word  to  set  it  forth  to  the  world. 

Tennyson  resembles  Shelley  in  this,  although  he  never  per- 
haps attains  to  that  high  rapture  and  inspiration  by  which  the 
latter  could  descry  and  portray  the  innermost  nature  of  things. 
The  following  may  be  taken  as  among  the  best  of  Tennyson : 

"  The  ever-silent  spaces  of  the  East, 
Far-folded  mists,  and  gleaming  halls  of  morn." 

"  The  wrinkled  sea  beneath  him  crawls." 
§    141.    EPITHETS    IN    PROSE. 

Epithets  are  of  importance  in  prose  as  well  as  in  poetry ; 
and  they  are  liberally  used  by  the  most  vigorous  writers.     In 


1 50  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

the  following  passage  from  Milton,  this  figure  is  used  to  give 
great  exactness  in  the  description  of  character : 

"Lords  and  Commons  of  England,  consider  what  nation  it  is  whereof  ye 
are,  and  whereof  ye  are  the  guardians  ;  a  nation  not  slow  and  dull,  but  of  a 
quick,  ingenious,  and  piercing  spirit ;  acute  to  invent ;  subtle  and  sinewy 
to  discourse ;  not  beneath  the  reach  of  any  point  that  human  capacity  can 
soar  to." 

Milton  exhibits  in  his  prose  works  not  only  strictness  and 
vigor  in  his  epithets,  but  also  much  of  that  splendor  and  reso- 
nant harmony  which  marks  his  poetry. 

In  the  following  passage  from  Carlyle,  the  epithets  are  used 
for  the  portrayal  of  the  personal  features  of  Oliver  Cromwell : 

"Massive  stature  ;  big,  massive  head,  of  somewhat  leonine  aspect ;  wart 
above  the  right  eyebrow ;  nose  of  considerable,  blunt,  aquiline  proportions  ; 
strict,  yet  copious  lips ;  full  of  all  tremulous  sensibilities  ;  and  also,  if  need 
be,  of  all  fiercenesses  and  vigors ;  deep,  loving  eyes — call  them  grave,  call 
them  stern — looking  from  under  those  craggy  brows  as  if  in  lifelong  sor- 
row, and  yet  not  thinking  it  sorrow,  thinking  it  only  labor  and  endeavor." 

Carlyle,  like  Milton,  can  make  use  of  epithets  which  are  full 
of  sounding  harmony ;  for  example  : 

"  Far  as  the  eye  reaches,  a  multitudinous  sea  of  upturned  faces,  the  air 
deaf  with  their  triumph  yell." 

Burke's  style  is  characterized  by  abundant  epithets.  This 
is  due  to  his  affluence  of  language,  copious  expression,  and 
rich  and  fertile  imagination.  These  are  often  accumulated  in 
rich,  but  never  useless  profusion  : 

"  Whatever  his  Grace  may  think  of  himself,  they  look  upon  him,  and 
everything  that  belongs  to  him,  with  no  more  regard  than  they  do  upon  the 
whiskers  of  that  little,  long-tailed  animal,  that  has  been  lontj  ihc  game  of  the 
grave,  demure,  insidious,  spring-nailed,  velvet-pawed,'green-eyed  philoso- 
phers, whether  going  upon  two  legs  or  upon  four." 

§    142.    FAULTS    IN   THE   USE   OF   EPITHETS. 

The  chief  faults  in  the  use  of  epithets  may  be  briefly  summed 
up  as  follows : 

I.  The  commonplace. 

A  large  number  of  terms  have  been  worn  out  by  frequent 
use,  and  produce  no  effect,  except  to  render  style  tedious. 
Such  are,  "  briny  deep,"  "  azure  sky,"  "  silver  moon,"  "  golden 
sun,"  "gallant  warrior,"  "rolling  sea,"  "winding  river,"  "vault- 


Figures  of  Relativity.  151 

ed  sky,"  ''•shadowy  tree,"  "towering  cliff^"  "lofty  summit," 
and  the  like.  Sometimes  a  thoroughly  commonplace  epithet 
will  be  used  in  a  vague  and  indiscriminate  way,  exhibiting  the 
last  degree  of  imbecility.  For  example,  the  word  "noble"  is 
sometimes  applied  by  the  same  writer  to  a  great  variety  of 
totally  different  things  ;  as,  "  noble  character,"  "  noble  ship," 
"  noble  scene,"  "  noble  sentiment,"  "  noble  book,"  "  noble 
cause,"  "noble  style." 

2.  The  use  of  too  many  epithets. 

Except  in  rare  cases,  such  as  the  passage  above  quoted  from 
Burke,  the  accumulation  of  epithets  gives  weakness  to  style. 
It  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  total  want  of  precision  and 
applicability.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  a  loose, 
weak,  and  verbose  writer. 

3.  Where  the  epithets  are  too  strong. 

Extravagance  of  expression  is  the  result,  and  this  repels  the 
reader.  This  is  visible  in  much  of  the  political  writing  of  the 
present  day,  where  personalities  are  indulged  in.  It  is  also  often 
a  characteristic  of  so-called  "temperance"  literature.  Thus 
an  ordinary  opponent  is  called  "infamous"  or  "detestable"  or 
*  corrupt "  or  "  traitorous ;"  and  the  writer  who  thus  reviles  his 
enemies  overpraises  his  friends  equally.  This  is  the  abuse  of 
words  which  destroys  their  power;  for  when  such  strong  ex- 
pressions are  lavished  where  they  are  not  applicable,  nothing 
remains  to  apply  when  strong  words  are  actually  needed. 

4.  Where  the  epithets  are  too  weak.  This  fault  arises  when 
the  descriptive  terms  are  quite  inadequate  to  express  the  char- 
acter of  the  subject :  as — 

"  Waterloo  resulted  in  considerable  carnage." 
"  Napoleon  attained  high  excellence  as  a  commander." 
"  The  great  waves  rolled  up,  and  thundered  on  the  beach  with  much 
noise." 

5.  Words  that  are  vague  or  general ;  as,  "  considerable," 
"several,"  "numerous,"  "nice." 

To  this  class  may  be  applied  many  words  that  have  no  par- 
ticular meaning,  but  are  used  only  in  a  conventional  way;  as, 
"able  editor,"  "gallant  captain,"  "enterprising  merchant," 
"good  bishop,"  "learned  counsel." 

Precision  is  of  the  utmost  importance  in  the  choice  and  ap- 
plication of  epithets. 


152  Elements  of  RJietoric, 


CHAPTER  V. 

FIGURES  OF  GRADATION.— AUGMENTATIVE. 
§    143.    FIGURES   OF   GRADATION. 

These  include  certain  forms  of  expression  by  which  a  sub- 
ject is  elevated  to  a  higher  degree  of  importance  than  usual, 
or  depressed  below  its  ordinary  level.  Statements  when  thus 
put  forth  naturally  attract  more  notice;  and  it  is  a  frequent  aim 
of  writers  to  call  attention  in  this  way  to  propositions  of  special 
interest.  While  one  topic  may  be  presented  with  enlarged  di- 
mensions, another,  which  is  opposed  to  it,  may  be  depreciated; 
but  the  augmentation  of  the  one  or  the  diminution  of  the 
other  tends  to  the  same  result  These  are  called  figures  of 
gradation,  because  they  indicate  degrees  of  value,  either  in- 
creasing or  diminishing. 

Figures  of  gradation  are  divided  into  tWo  general  classes : 
first,  augmentative ;  and,  secondly,  decrementive. 

§    144.    AUGMENTATIVE   FIGURES. 

Of  these  we  have  to  consider  in  the  first  place  augmentative 
figures. 

In  this  class  are  included  all  those  figures  by  which  any 
given  subject  is  expanded  before  the  mind,  and  invested  with 
more  than  ordinary  importance.  They  are  especially  applica- 
ble to  the  leading  propositions  of  arguments,  to  deductions,  and 
to  conclusions.  It  is  evident  that  these  should  always  be  pre- 
sented in  the  most  striking  manner,  so  that  they  shall  arrest 
the  attention  and  be  retained  by  the  memory.  It  is  necessary 
to  enlarge  upon  them,  so  that  they  may  be  appreciated  at  their 
highest  value,  and  that  the  reader  may  feel  the  full  weight  that 
is  attached  to  them  by  the  writer.  They  are  often  associated 
with  strong  emotion ;  they  are  found  in  all  departments  of  lit- 
erature; but  the  best  examples  exist  in  oratory.  This  arises 
from  the  fact  that  the  orator  is  more  directly  under  the  influence 


Figures  of  Gradation.  153 

of  feeling  than  any  others  who  deal  in  prose  composition.  The 
augmentative  figures  therefore,  being  thus  associated  with  emo- 
tion, may  be  found  exhibiting  every  gradation  of  feeling,  from 
the  slightest  expression  of  thought  up  to  the  most  exaggerated 
display  of  passion. 

The  augmentative  figures  comprise  : 

I.  Amplification.     II.  Climax.     III.  Hyperbole. 

§   145.    AMPLIFICATION   DEFINED. 

Amplification  is  the  expansion  of  any  topic  by  the  assem- 
blage of  particulars  appertaining  to  it,  so  that  it  shall  be  con- 
veyed to  the  mind  with  enlarged  force  and  dignity.  Longinus 
defines  amplification  as  "  a  full  and  complete  assemblage  of 
the  particulars  and  arguments  appertaining  to  subjects,  giving 
additional  strength  to,  and  heightenitrg  a  point  that  has  been 
already  made  out." 

This  amplifying  process  may  consist  of  many  gradations, 
from  the  slightest  possible  enlargement  of  any  given  point  to 
the  boldest  and  most  extravagant  description.  It  may  also  be 
done  in  different  ways,  all  of  which  have  been  set  down  by  the 
ancient  rhetoricians  as  so  many  separate  figures.  The  names 
and  definitions  of  these  figures  will  be  given  for  the  sake  of 
fulness  of  treatment,  but  at  the  same  time  it  will  be  proper  to 
regard  them  merely  as  so  many  forms  of  amplification. 

§   146.    AMPLIFICATION    BY   DWELLING   UPON    DETAILS. 

The  topic  is  expanded  and  brought  into  connection  with  new 
and  striking  trains  of  thought,  either  by  exposition  or  descrip- 
tion. 

The  following  example  is  taken  from  Burke's  speech  on  con- 
ciliation with  America.  In  considering  the  state  and  circum- 
stances of  the  colonies,  the  orator  comes  to  the  subject  of  the 
fisheries,  which  he  amplifies  in  this  way  : 

"  Pass  by  the  other  parts,  and  look  at  the  way  in  which  the  people  of  New 
England  have  of  late  carried  on  the  whale-fishery.  While  we  follow  them 
among  the  tumbling  mountains  of  ice,  and  behold  them  penetrating  into 
the  deepest  frozen  recesses  of  Hudson  Bay  and  Davis  Straits — while  we 
are  looking  for  them  beneath  the  Arctic  Circle,  we  hear  that  they  have 
pierced  into  the  opposite  region  of  polar  cold — that  they  are  at  the  antipodes, 
and  engaged  under  the  frozen  Serpent  of  the  South.  Falkland  Island,  which 
seemed  too  remote  and  romantic  an  object  for  the  grasp  of  national  ambition, 


1 54  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

is  but  a  stage  and  resting-plaee  in  the  progress  of  their  victorious  industry. 
Nor  is  the  equinoctial  heat  more  discouraging  to  them  than  the  accumulated 
winter  of  both  the  poles.  We  know  that  while  some  of  them  draw  the  line 
and  strike  the  harpoon  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  others  run  the  longitude  and 
pursue  their  gigantic  game  along  the  coast  of  Brazil.  No  sea  but  what  is 
vexed  by  their  fisheries.     No  climate  that  is  not  witness  to  their  toils." 

Starting  from  the  idea  of  the  whale-fishery,  the  speaker  ex- 
pands into  a  train  of  thought  full  of  rich  suggestiveness.  To 
any  other  man  nothing  might  seem  more  unpromising  than 
such  a  topic  as  the  fisheries;  but  by  this  amplification  it  re- 
ceives a  new  and  unexpected  turn  full  of  interest,  and  from 
prose  it  is  transformed  into  poetry. 

§    147.    BY    DIRECT   STATEMENT. 

2.  The  topic  is  magnified  in  importance  by  a  direct  state- 
ment of  its  character  or  effects  : 

"  At  his  touch  crowns  crumbled ;  beggars  reigned ;  systems  vanished ; 
the  wildest  theories  took  the  color  of  his  whims ;  and  all  that  was  vener- 
able and  all  that  was  novel  changed  places  with  the  rapidity  of  a  dream." 
— Charles  Phillips. 

Here,  by  a  few  startling  statements  of  sharply  contrasted 
acts,  the  genius  of  Napoleon  is  greatly  magnified. 

"  The  dawn  is  overcast,  the  morning  lowers, 
And  heavily  in  clouds  brings  on  the  day — 
The  great,  the  important  day,  big  with  the  fate 
Of  Cato  and  of  Rome." — Addison. 

In  this  passage,  "the  day,"  announced  as  "great"  and  "im- 
portant," is  made  still  more  so  by  the  previous  mention  of 
attendant  circumstances,  and  significant  hints  at  the  events 
which  are  destined  to  follow. 

§    148.    BY   COMPARISON. 

3.  The  importance  of  the  subject  is  heightened  by  bringing 
it  into  comparison  with  something  else.  To  display  the  true 
character  of  any  one  thing,  nothing  is  more  effective  than  to 
present  it  in  contrast  with  some  other  thing.  In  this  lies  the 
force  of  the  figure  comparison,  which  is  here  made  use  of  for 
purposes  of  amplification  : 

"  It  was  the  boast  of  Augustus  that  he  found  Rome  of  brick,  and  left  it 
marble  ;  a  praise  not  unworthy  of  a  great  prince,  and  to  which  the  present 


Figures  of  Gradation.  155 

reign  has  its  claim  also.  But  how  much  nobler  will  be  our  sovereign's 
boast  when  he  shall  have  it  to  say  that  he  found  Law  dear,  and  left  it  cheap  ; 
found  it  a  sealed  book,  left  it  an  open  letter ;  found  it  the  patrimony  of  the 
rich,  left  it  the  inheritance  of  the  poor ;  found  it  the  two-edged  sword  of 
craft  and  oppression,  left  it  the  staff  of  honesty  and  the  shield  of  innocence." 
— Lord  Brougham. 

In  this  passage  the  comparison  by  analogy  is  presented  in 
order  to  give  enhanced  importance  to  the  subject.  By  this 
means  it  is  introduced  with  luminous  and  effective  illustration, 
and  enlarged  to  the  utmost  dignity  with  which  the  speaker  can 
endow  it.     The  same  may  be  seen  in  the  following  examples : 

"  If  the  task  of  a  king  be  considered  as  difficult  who  has  the  care  of  only 
a  few  millions,  to  whom  he  cannot  do  much  good  or  harm,  what  must  be 
the  anxiety  of  him  on  whom  depend  the  action  of  the  elements,  and  the 
great  gifts  of  light  and  heat." — Johnson. 

"  His  spear,  to  equal  which  the  tallest  pine. 
Hewn  on  Norwegian  hills,  to  be  the  mabt 
Of  some  great  ammiral,  were  but  a  wand." — MiLTON. 

§   149.    ACCUMULATION. 

4.  There  is  an  aggregation  of  particulars  relating  to  the  sub- 
ject. This  is  sometimes  considered  a  separate  figure  under 
the  name  of  "accumulation."     The  following  is  an  example  : 

*•  This  arbitrary  and  tyrannical  power  which  the  Earl  of  Strafford  did  ex- 
ercise with  his  own  person,  and  to  which  he  did  advise  his  majesty,  is  in- 
consistent with  the  peace,  the  wealth,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  nation  ;  it  is 
destructive  to  justice,  the  mother  of  peace  ;  to  industry,  the  spring  of  wealth ; 
to  valor,  which  is  the  active  virtue  whereby  only  the  prosperity  of  a  nation 
can  be  produced,  confirmed,  enlarged." — John  Pym. 

Here  the  subject  is  amplified  by  the  mention  of  a  number  of 
cases  in  which  the  policy  of  Strafford  wrought  evil ;  as  in  the 
case  of  peace,  wealth,  prosperity,  justice,  industry,  and  valor. 

The  same  may  be  seen  in  the  following : 

•*  Do  not  entertain  so  weak  an  imagination  as  that  your  registers,  and 
your  bonds  ;  your  affidavits,  and  your  sufferances  ;  your  cockets,  and  your 
clearances,  form  the  great  securities  of  your  commerce." — Burke. 

"Observing  the  wide  and  general  devastation,  and  all  the  horrors  of  the 
scene — of  plains  unclothed  and  brown  ;  of  vegetables  burned  up  and  extin- 
guished ;  of  villages  depopulated  and  in  ruins  ;  of  temples  unroofed  and 
perishing  ;  of  reservoirs  broken  down  and  dry — he  would  naturally  inquire, 
what  war  has  thus  laid  waste  the  fertile  fields  of  this  once  beautiful  and 
opulent  country  •* — Sheridan. 


156  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Amplification  is  here  applied  to  description,  and  the  subject, 
which  is  the  devastation  of  Oude,  is  enlarged  by  the  accumula- 
tion of  particulars,  such  as  the  plains,  the  vegetation,  the  vil- 
lages, the  temples,  and  the  reservoirs. 

"  I  stigmatize  it  as  a  revolutionary  tribunal.  What  in  the  name  of  Heaven 
is  it,  if  it  is  not  a  revolutionary  tribunal  ?  It  annihilates  the  trial  by  jury ;  it 
drives  the  judge  from  his  bench — the  man  who  from  experience  could  weigh 
the  nice  and  delicate  points  of  a  case,  who  could  discriminate  between  the 
straightforward  testimony  and  the  suborned  evidence  ;  who  could  see  plain- 
ly and  readily  the  justice  or  the  injustice  of  the  accusation.  It  turns  out 
this  man,  who  is  free,  instructed,  unprejudiced,  who  has  no  previous  opinions 
to  control  the  free  exercise  of  duty." — O'Connell. 

This  accumulation  of  particulars,  relative  to  the  ordinary 
characteristics  of  the  regular  judge,  tends  to  enhance  the  idea 
of  his  impartiality  and  his  value,  as  opposed  to  the  character 
of  those  who  would  preside  over  military  tribunals. 

§  150.  COLLECTIO,  AGGREGATIO. 

5.  Sometimes  the  particulars  introduced  are  not  actually  a 
part  of  the  subject,  but  are  suggested  by  it,  and  are  set  forth  in 
order.  This  is  called  "  collectio,"  and  also  "  aggregatio,"  and 
may  be  defined  as  an  orderly  array  of  particulars,  which,  though 
disconnected  among  themselves,  are  yet  suggested  by  the 
subject : 

"  Straight  mine  eye  hath  caught  new  pleasures. 

While  the  landscape  round  it  measures — 

Russet  lawns,  and  fallows  gray. 

Where  the  nibbling  flocks  do  stray ; 

Mountains,  on  whose  barren  breast 

The  laboring  clouds  do  often  rest ; 

Meadows  trim  with  daisies  pied, 

Shallow  brooks,  and  rivers  wide; 

Towers  and  battlements  it  sees 

Bosom'd  high  in  tufted  trees, 

Where  perhaps  some  beauty  lies, 

The  cynosure  of  neighboring  eyes." 

In  this  accumulation  of  particulars,  the  details,  though  dis- 
connected, are  set  forth  in  an  orderly  manner. 

"  A  royalist,  a  republican,  and  an  emperor  ;  a  Mohammedan,  a  Catholic, 
and  a  patron  of  the  synagogue;  a  traitor  and  a  tyrant ;  a  Christen  and  an 
infidel,  he  was  through  all  his  vicissitudes  the  same  stern,  impatient,  in- 
flexible original." — Charles  Phillips.  » 


Figures  of  Gradation.  157 

The  particulars  here  accumulated  are  of  widely  diverse 
character,  and  naturally  disconnected  among  themselves ;  but 
they  are  set  forth  with  remarkable  attention  to  order  in  their 
presentation,  and  the  strongly  marked  antitheses  heighten  the 
effect  of  the  treatment.  The  same  may  be  seen  in  the  follow- 
ing passage : 

"  It  is  not  enough  to  say  that  he  must  be  an  engineer,  a  geographer,  learn- 
ed in  human  nature,  adroit  in  managing  mankind  ;  that  he  must  be  able  to 
perform  the  highest  duties  of  a  minister  of  state,  and  sink  to  the  humblest 
offices  of  a  commissary  or  clerk ;  but  he  has  also  to  display  all  this  knowl- 
edge, and  he  must  do  all  these  things  at  the  same  time,  and  under  extraor- 
dinary circumstances." — Disraeli. 

§   151.   SYNATHROISMUS. 

6.  A  further  change  in  accumulation  may  be  seen  when  par- 
ticulars disconnected  in  themselves  are  set  forth,  not  in  order 
(as  in  collectio),  but  in  a  confused  and  disorderly  manner. 
The  statement  is  thus  enlarged  in  importance,  and  heightened 
in  effect,  both  by  the  force  of  the  accumulated  particulars,  and 
also  by  the  suggestion  of  mental  emotion  which  their  confused 
order  conveys.     This  has  been  called  "  synathroismus." 

"  Methought  I  saw  a  thousand  fearful  wrecks ; 
A  thousand  men  that  fishes  gnaw'd  upon ; 
Wedges  of  gold,  great  anchors,  heaps  of  pearl, 
Inestimable  stones,  unvalued  jewels — 
All  scattered  in  the  bottom  of  the  sea." — Shakespeare. 

"  So  eagerly  the  fiend, 
O'er  bog  or  steep,  through  strait,  rough,  dense,  or  rare, 
With  head,  hands,  wings,  or  feet,  pursues  his  way, 
And  swims,  or  sinks,  or  wades,  or  creeps,  or  flies." — Milton. 

"  He  disposed  of  courts  and  crowns  and  camps  and  churches  and  cab- 
inets as  if  they  were  the  titular  dignitaries  of  the  chess-board." — Charles 
Phillips. 

§  152.   DIASCEUE. 

7.  The  impressiveness  of  a  subject  is  enhanced  by  an  accu- 
mulation of  minute  details,  in  which  everything  is  laid  down 
with  the  most  prosaic  and  painstaking  circumstantiality.  This 
is  called  "  diasceue." 

In  the  following  passage,  the  ruinous  effects  of  war  are  am- 
plified in  a  novel  and  unexpected  way,  by  showing  the  financial 
losses  that  may  arise  from  even  a  mere  rumor,  and  this  is  done 
by  minute  detail : 


158  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

"  A  fall  of  ten  per  cent  in  the  funds  is  nearly  eighty  million  sterling  of 
value  ;  and  railway  stock  having  gone  down  twenty  per  cent.,  makes  a  dif- 
ference of  sixty  millions  in  the  value  of  the  railway  property  of  this  country. 
Add  the  two— one  hundred  and  forty  millions — and  take  the  diminished  pros- 
perity and  value  of  manufactures  of  all  kinds  during  the  last  few  months, 
and  you  will  understate  the  actual  loss  to  the  country  now  if  you  put  it  down 
at  two  hundred  million  sterling." — John  Bright. 

"  He  is  a  king  every  inch  of  him,  though  without  the  trappings  of  a  king. 
Presents  himself  in  Spartan  simplicity  of  vesture;  no  crown  but  an  old  mil- 
itary cocked  hat — generally  old,  or  kneaded  into  absolute  softness  if  new ; 
no  sceptre,  but  one  like  Agamemnon's,  a  walking-stick  cut  from  the  woods, 
which  serves  also  as  a  riding-stick  (with  which  he  hits  the  horse  'between 
the  ears,'  say  authors),  and  for  royal  robes  a  mere  soldier's  blue  coat  with 
red  facings — coat  likely  to  be  old,  and  sure  to  have  a  good  deal  of  Spanish 
snuff  on  the  breast  of  it ;  rest  of  the  apparel  dim,  unobtrusive  in  color  or 
cut,  ending  in  high  overknee  military  boots,  which  may  be  brushed  (and  I 
hope  kept  soft  with  an  underhand  suspicion  of  oil),  but  are  not  permitted 
to  be  blackened  or  varnished  :  Day  and  Martin  with  their  soot-pots  forbid- 
den to  approach." — Thomas  Carlyle. 

In  this  series  of  minute  details  the  subject  is  brought  before 
the  mind  with  wonderful  vividness.  Carlyle  indulges  freely 
and  frequently  in  this  elaborate  mention  of  particulars ;  and 
this  is  one  of  the  great  characteristics  of  his  descriptions.  It 
is  a  leading  quality  in^he  works  of  Bunyan  and  Defoe,  through 
which  they  were  able  to  throw  around  their  writings  that  un- 
paralleled verisimilitude  by  which  they  are  distinguished. 

§  153.  SYNEZEUGMENON. 

8.  A  peculiar  kind  of  accumulation  is  found  where  several 
phrases  or  thoughts  are  grouped  together  and  referred  by  com- 
bination to  the  same  word,  each  of  which  when  used  alone  would 
require  that  word  for  itself     This  is  called  "  synezeugmenon/' 

"  The  breezy  call  of  incense-breathing  mom. 
The  swallow  twittering  from  the  straw-built  shed. 
The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn, 
No  more  shall  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed." — Gray. 

"  Justice  I  have  now  before  me,  august  and  pure  ;  where  her  favorite  at- 
titude is  to  stoop  to  the  unfortunate,  to  hear  their  cry  and  to  help  them,  to 
rescue  and  relieve,  to  succor  and  to  save." — Sheridan. 

§   154.   EPEXERGASIA. 

9.  Sometimes  a  proposition  is  amplified  by  the  superabun- 


Figures  of  Gradation.  159 

dant  accumulation  of  examples,  illustrations,  or  proofs.  This 
is  called  "  epexergasia." 

"  All  men  desire  to  be  immortal.  The  desire  is  instinctive,  natural,  uni- 
versal. In  God's  world  such  a  desire  implies  the  satisfaction  thereof  eqaally 
natural  and  universal.  It  cannot  be  that  God  has  given  man  the  universal 
belief  in  immortality,  and  yet  made  it  a  mockery.  Man  loves  truth,  tells  it, 
rests  only  on  it,  yet  how  much  more  God,  who  is  the  trueness  of  truth.  Bod- 
ily senses  imply  their  objects — the  eye  light ;  the  ear  sound  ;  the  touch,  the 
taste,  the  smell,  things  relative  thereto.  Spiritual  senses  likewise  foretell 
their  object — are  silent  prophecies  of  endless  life.  The  love  of  justice,  beau- 
ty, truth,  of  man  and  God,  points  to  realities  unseen  as  yet.  We  are  ever 
hungering  after  noblest  things,  and  what  we  feed  on  makes  us  hunger  more." 
— Theodore  Parker. 

■  Here  the  proposition  is  that  desire  implies  satisfaction.  This 
is  illustrated  and  set  forth  by  numerous  familiar  cases,  both 
concrete  and  abstract. 

•'  There  is  scarcely  any  profession  in  the  commonwealth  more  necessary, 
which  is  so  slightly  performed.  First,  young  scholars  make  this  calling 
their  refUge,  yea,  perchance  before  they  have  taken  their  degree  in  the  uni- 
versity, commence  schoolmasters  in  the  country,  as  if  nothing  else  were  req- 
uisite to  set  up  this  profession  but  only  a  rod  and  a  ferule.  Secondly, 
others  who  are  able  use  it  only  as  a  passage  to  better  preferment,  to  patch 
the  rents  in  their  present  fortune  till  they  can  fyid  a  new  one,  and  betake 
themselves  to  some  more  gainful  calling.  Thirdly,  they  are  disheartened 
from  doing  their  best  with  the  miserable  reward  which,  in  some  places,  they 
receive,  being  masters  to  the  children  and  slaves  to  the  parents." — Thomas 
Fuller. 

§  155.   DINUMERATIO. 

10.  Amplification  sometimes  is  produced  by  the  enumeration 
of  well-known  names,  which,  by  force  of  the  associations  con- 
nected with  them,  and  by  expressed  or  suggested  meaning, 
increase  the  importance  of  the  subject.  This  is  called  "dinu- 
meratio." 

"  It  did  not  because  they  were  Irishmen  pay  a  less  sincere,  a  less  willing 
homage  to  the  glorious  memory  of  a  Ponsonby  and  a  Packenham.  Castle- 
reagh  and  Canning  fought  in  the  same  ranks  with  Pitt ;  and  Grattan  took 
his  place  in  the  great  contests  of  party  by  the  side  of  Fox." — Sir  Robert 
Peel. 

The  mention  of  proper  names  is  always  effective  on  account 
of  their  definiteness,  a  quality  the  importance  of  which  has  al- 
ready been  considered.     In  this  passage,  the  names  thus  intro- 


i6o  Elemcfits  of  Rhci.  ric. 

duced  call  up  a  world  of  associations,  r.n  I  contribute  greatly  to 
the  enlargement  of  the  topic.  The  same  thing  may  be  seen 
even  more  impressively  displayed  in  the  following  passages  : 

"  All  his  victories  should  have  rushed  and  crowded  back  upon  his  mem- 
ory— Vimiera,  Badajos,  Salamanca,  Albuera,  Toulouse,  and  last  of  all  the 
greatest." — Sheil. 

"The  blood  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland  flowed  in  the  same  stream, 
and  drenched  the  same  field." — Sheil. 

"  Or  call  up  him  who  left  half  told 
The  story  of  Cambuscan  bold. 
Of  Camball  and  of  Algarsife, 
And  who  had  Canace  to  wife." — Milton. 

Chaucer  is  thus  introduced  by  the  enumeration  of  the  names 
of  the  actors  in  what  the  poet  selects  as  his  most  characteristic 
poem,  "  The  Squieres  Tale." 

§  156.   DESCRIPTION. 

II.  Sometimes  in  the  midst  of  narrative  or  expository  writing 
the  attention  is  diverted  for  a  time  to  a  piece  of  description,  in 
which  some  prominent  subject  is  presented  in  a  most  impres- 
sive aspect.  When  well  carried  out  it  is  highly  effective.  It 
is  a  well-known  and  tery  common  device  of  novelists  and  his- 
torians; it  is  also  one  of  the  recognized  tactics  of  oratory.  Its 
nature  and  effects  are  such  that  it  may  be  closely  associated 
with  amplification,  with  which  it  is  often  identified,  for  this  is 
one  of  the  most  frequent  modes  in  which  that  figure  is  pre- 
sented. It  may,  however,  be  considered  as  a  separate  figure, 
and  as  such  it  has  been  called  "descriptio." 

As  representative  examples  may  be  mentioned  Burke's  de- 
scription of  the  descent  of  Hyder  Ali  on  the  Carnatic,  and 
Sheridan's  description  of  the  desolation  of  Oude — which  are 
among  the  most  famous  in  oratory;  also  Scott's  description 
of  the  trial  of  Effie  Deans  ;  Macaulay's  description  of  the  trial 
of  Warren  Hastings  ;  and  Carlyle's  description  of  Oliver  Crom- 
well, Frederick  the  Great,  or  the  execution  of  Marie  Antoinette. 

The  following  is  from  the  Romola  of  George  Eliot : 

"  The  blind  father  sat  with  head  uplifted  and  turned  a  little  aside  toward 
his  daughter,  as  if  he  were  looking  at  her.  His  delicate  paleness,  set  off  by 
the  black  velvet  cap  which  surmounted  his  drooping  white  hair,  made  all 
the  more  perceptible  the  likeness  between  his  aged  features  and  those  of 


Figures  of  Gradation.  i6i 

the  young  maiden,  whose  cheeks  were  also  without  any  tinge  of  the  rose. 
There  was  the  same  refinement  of  brow  and  nostril  in  both,  counterbalanced 
by  a  full  though  firm  mouth  and  powerful  chin,  which  gave  an  impression 
of  proud  tenacity  and  latent  impetuousness  ;  an  expression  carried  out  in 
the  backward  poise  of  the  girl's  head,  and  the  grand  line  of  her  neck  and 
shoulders." 

Description  may  also  refer  to  character.  Dryden's  sketches 
of  Shaftesbury  and  Buckingham  in  Absalom  and  Achitophel 
may  be  mentioned  as  examples  of  this,  and  also  Macaulay's 
portrayal  of  the  Puritans. 

The  following  is  an  example  : 

"Think  of  him  reckless,  thriftless,  vain  if  you  like — but  merciful,  gentle, 
generous,  full  of  love  and  pity.  He  passes  out  of  our  life,  and  goes  to  ren- 
der his  account  beyond  it.  Think  of  the  poor  pensioners  weeping  at  his 
grave  ;  think  of  the  noble  spirits  that  admired  and  deplored  him  ;  think  of 
the  righteous  pen  that  wrote  his  epitaph,  and  of  the  wonderful  and  unani- 
mous response  of  affection  with  which  the  world  has  paid  back  the  love  he 
gave  it.  His  humor  delighting  us  still ;  his  song  fresh  and  beautiful  as 
when  first  he  charmed  with  it ;  his  words  in  all  our  mouths  ;  his  very  weak- 
nesses beloved  and  familiar  ;  his  benevolent  spirit  seems  still  to  smile  upon 
us  ;  to  do  gentle  kindnesses  ;  to  succor  with  sweet  charity ;  to  soothe,  ca- 
ress, forgive  ;  to  plead  with  the  fortunate  for  the  unhappy  and  the  poor." — 
Thackeray. 

§  157.   ECLOGE.  * 

12.  One  great  essential  to  success  in  description  consists  in 
the  judicious  selection  of  the  most  striking  circumstances.  This 
is  called  "ecloge." 

Longinus  attaches  to  this  very  great  importance.  "  As  there 
are  no  subjects,"  he  says,  "  which  are  not  attended  by  certain 
adjuncts  coexistent  with  their  very  essence,  a  judicious  choice 
of  the  most  suitable  of  these  adjuncts  must  necessarily  pro- 
duce elevation  of  style."  He  commends  as  an  example  of  this 
the  famous  ode  of  Sappho,  in  which  the  effects  of  jealousy  are 
described : 

"  Blest  as  the  immortal  gods  is  he, 
The  youth  who  fondly  sits  by  thee. 
And  sees  and  hears  thee  all  the  while, 
Softly  speak  and  sweetly  smile. 

"  'Twas  this  deprived  my  soul  of  rest, 
And  raised  such  tumults  in  my  breast; 
For  while  I  gazed,  in  transport  tossed. 
My  breath  was  gone,  my  voice  was  lost. 


1 62  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

**  My  bosom  glowed,  the  subtle  flame 
Ran  quick  through  all  my  vital  frame ; 
O'er  my  dim  eyes  a  darkness  hung, 
My  ears  with  hollow  murmurs  rung. 

"  In  dewy  damps  my  limbs  were  chilled. 
My  blood  with  gentle  horrors  thrilled. 
My  feeble  pulse  forgot  to  play, 
I  fainted,  sunk,  and  died  away." 

— Philips'  Translation. 

"  Are  you  not  amazed,"  he  continues,  "  how  in  the  same 
moment  she  is  to  seek  for  her  soul,  her  body,  her  ears,  her 
tongue,  her  eyes,  her  color,  all  of  them  as  much  absent  from 
her  as  though  they  had  never  belonged  to  her.  How  she 
glows,  chills,  raves,  reasons ;  for  either  she  is  in  tumults  of 
alarm  or  she  is  dying  away." 

A  passage  in  the  speech  of  Demosthenes  On  the  Crown  is 
also  quoted  by  him  as  an  example  : 

"  For  it  was  evening  when  a  courier  brought  to  the  magistrates  the  news 
of  the  surprise  of  Elatea.  Immediately  they  arose,  though  in  the  midst  of 
their  repast  Some  of  them  hurried  away  to  the  Agora,  and.  driving  the 
tradesmen  out,  set  fire  to  the  booths.  Others  fled  to  advertise  the  com- 
manders of  the  army  of  the  news,  and  to  summon  the  public  herald.  The 
whole  city  was  full  of  tumult.  On  the  morrow,  at  break  of  day,  the  magis- 
trates convened  the  senate.  You,  gentlemen,  obeyed  the  summons.  Before 
the  public  council  proceeded  to  debate  the  people  took  their  seats  above. 
When  the  senate  were  come  in  the  magistrate  laid  open  the  reasons  of  their 
meeting,  and  produced  the  courier." 

The  following  passage  from  Macaulay's  essay  on  Barfere 
affords  a  striking  example  of  ecloge : 

"  Then  came  the  days  when  the  most  barbarous  of  all  codes  was  adminis- 
tered by  the  most  barbarous  of  all  tribunals ;  when  no  man  could  greet  his 
neighbor,  or  say  his  prayers,  or  dress  his  hair,  without  danger  of  committing 
a  capital  crime  ;  when  the  guillotine  was  long  and  hard  at  work  every  morn- 
ing ;  when  the  jails  were  filled  as  close  as  the  hold  of  a  slave-ship ;  when 
the  gutters  ran  foaming  with  blood  into  the  Seine ;  when  it  was  death  to 
be  great-niece  to  a  captain  of  the  Royal  Guards,  or  half-brother  to  a  doctor 
of  the  Sorbonne ;  to  express  a  doubt  whether  assignats  would  not  fail ; 
to  trust  that  the  English  had  been  victorious  in  the  action  of  the  first  of 
June  ;  to  have  a  copy  of  one  of  Burke's  pamphlets  locked  up  in  one's  desk ; 
to  laugh  at  a  Jacobin  for  taking  the  name  of  Cassius  or  Timoleon,  or  to 
call  the  fifth  Sans-culottide  by  its  old  superstitious  name  of  St.  Matthew's 
day." 


Figures  of  Gradation.  163 

**  Sweet  is  the  breath  of  morn,  her  rising  sweet, 
With  charm  of  earliest  birds  ;  pleasant  the  sun, 
When  first  on  this  delightful  land  he  spreads 
His  orient  beams  on  herb,  tree,  fruit,  and  flower. 
Glistering  with  dew  ;  fragrant  the  fertile  earth 
After  soft  showers ;  and  sweet  the  coming  on 
Of  grateful  evening  mild." — Milton. 

In  this  passage  there  is  a  selection  of  the  general  beauties 
of  nature,  such  as  morning  air,  sunrise,  songs  of  birds,  spark- 
ling dew,  rain-showers,  evening. 

In  the  following  lines  from  the  Earthly  Paradise  of  William 
Morris  there  will  be  seen  a  selefction  of  special  circumstances 
connected  with  a  mid-day  repast  of  reapers : 

"  He  could  see 
The  masters  of  that  ripening  realm, 
Cast  down  beneath  an  ancient  elm, 
Upon  a  little  strip  of  grass. 
From  hand  to  hand  the  pitcher  pass, 
While  on  the  turf  beside  them  lay 
The  ashen-handled  sickles  gray. 
The  matters  of  their  cheer  between 
Slices  of  white  cheese,  sijecked  with  green, 
And  green-striped  onions  and  rye  bread, 
And  summer  apples  faintly  red 
Even  beneath  the  crimson  skin  ; 
And  yellow  grapes,  well  ripe  and  thin, 
Plucked  from  the  cottage  gable-end." 

§  158.    HYPOTYPOSIS. 

13.  Some  kinds  of  description  closely  resemble  vision,  yet 
are  to  be  distinguished  from  it.  One  of  these  is  called  "hypo- 
typosis,"  and  has  been  defined  as  the  representation  of  things  so 
fully  expressed  in  words  that  it  seems  to  be  seen  rather  than 
heard.  This  is  the  description  of  a  thing  in  strong  and  vivid 
colors;  yet  it  is  not  vision,  which  is  the  representation  of  things 
as  if  actually  present  before  the  writer  or  speaker : 

"  He  himself,  inflamed  with  wickedness  and  fury,  came  into  the  Forum ; 
his  eyes  glared ;  cruelty  showed  itself  over  his  whole  countenance." — Cicero. 

"  Do  you  not  think  that  whoso  could  by  adequate  description  bring  be- 
fore you  that  winter  of  the  Pilgrims — its  brief  sunshine,  the  nights  of  storm 
slow  waning ;  the  damp  and  icy  breath  felt  to  the  pillow  of  the  dying ;  its 
destitutions  ;  its  contrast  with  all  their  former  experiences  in  life  :  its  utter 
isolation  and  loneliness;  its  death-beds  and  burials;  its  memories,  its  ap- 
prehensions, its  hopes ;  the  consolations  of  the  prudent,  the  prayers   of 

H 


164  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

the  pious ;  the  occasional  cheerful  hymn  in  which  the  strong  heart  threw 
off  its  burden,  and,  asserting  its  un vanquished  nature,  went  up  like  a  bird 
of  dawn  to  the  skies ;  do  you  not  think  that  whoso  could  describe  them 
waiting  in  that  defile,  lonelier  and  darker  than  Thermopylae,  for  a  morning 
that  might  never  dawn  ;  or  might  show  them  when  it  did  a  mightier  army 
than  the  Persian,  raised  as  in  act  to  strike — would  he  not  sketch  a  scene 
of  more  difficult  and  rarer  heroism?" — Rufus  Choate. 

§   159.    METASTASIS. 

14.  Another  kind  of  description  similar  to  vision  is  called 
"  metastasis,"  and  involves  a  transition  from  the  present  to 
the  future.  4 

A  good  example  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  Daniel  Webster's 
great  peroration  in  his  reply  to  Hayne  : 

"  Beyond  that  I  seek  not  to  penetrate  the  veil.  God  grant  that  in  my 
day  at  least  that  curtain  may  not  rise.  God  grant  that  on  my  vision  never 
may  be  opened  what  lies  behind.  When  my  eyes  shall  be  turned  for  the 
last  time  to  behold  the  sun  in  heaven,  may  I  not  see  him  shining  on  the 
broken  and  dishonored  fragments  of  a  once  glorious  Union  ;  on  states  dis- 
severed, discordant,  belligerent ;  on  a  land  rent  with  civil  feuds,  or  drench- 
ed, it  may  be,  in  fraternal  blood.  Let  their  last  feeble  and  lingering  gleam 
rather  behold  the  gorgeous  ensign  of  the  Republic,  now  known  and  honored 
through  the  earth,  still  full  high  advanced,  its  arms  and  trophies  streaming 
in  their  original  lustre,  not  a  stripe  erased  or  polluted,  nor  a  single  star  ob- 
scured ;  bearing  for  its  motto  no  such  miserable  interrogatory  as  *  What  is 
all  this  worth  ?'  nor  those  other  words  of  delusion  and  folly,  '  Liberty  first, 
and  the  Union  afterwards ;'  but  everywhere  spread  all  over  in  characters 
of  living  light,  blazing  on  all  its  ample  folds,  and  as  they  float  over  the  sea 
and  over  the  land,  and  in  every  wind  under  the  whole  heavens,  that  other 
sentiment,  dear  to  every  American  heart — '  Liberty  and  the  Union,  now  and 
forever,  one  and  inseparable.' " 

§  160.   CLIMAX. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  augmentative  figures  is 
climax.  It  has  something  in  common  with  the  figures  of  simi- 
larity, and  also  with  those  of  contiguity,  so  that  it  is  sometimes 
classified  with  the  one  or  the  other  of  these ;  but  its  chief  effect 
seems  to  be  to  augment  the  subject  by  presenting  it  in  con- 
nection with  others.  By  climax  is  meant  an  ascending  series 
of  thoughts  or  statements,  which  go  on  increasing  in  impor- 
tance until  the  last. 

The  ancient  rhetoricians  gave  a  different  account  of  climax, 
since  they  separated  it  from  other  figures  which  are  now  blend- 
ed with  it  (incrementum  and  progressio).     In  this  restricted 


Figures  of  Gradatioft.  165 

form,  climax  meant  with  them  such  a  disposition  of  statements 
that  they  go  on  increasing  in  importance  by  successive  stages, 
but  that  at  each  stage  of  the  ascent  a  new  statement  is  com- 
pared with  the  previous  one,  and  formally  elevated  above  it. 

"  Climax,"  says  Quintilian,  "  recurs  to  what  has  been  said, 
and  takes  a  rest,  as  it  were,  on  something  that  precedes,  before 
it  passes  on  to  anything  else ;"  as — 

"  I  not  only  did  not  say  this,  but  did  not  even  write  it ;  I  not  only  did  not 
write  it,  but  took  no  part  in  the  embassy ;  I  not  only  took  no  part  in  the 
embassy,  but  used  no  persuasion  with  the  Thebans." 

The  following  is  a  familiar  example : 

"And  besides  this,  giving  all  diligence,  add  to  your  faith  virtue;  and  to 
virtue  knowledge  ;  and  to  knowledge  temperance ;  and  to  temperance  pa- 
tience ;  and  to  patience  godliness  ;  and  to  godliness  brotherly  kindness ; 
and  to  brotherly  kindness  charity." — St.  Paul. 

At  the  present  day  climax  has  a  less  strict  definition,  and 
means  generally  that  figure  by  which  statements  are  arranged 
in  an  ascending  series,  the  final  one  being  the  most  important 
of  all.  It  is  very  effective,  for  the  thoughts  thus  presented  fall 
upon  the  mind  as  though  with  successive  blows,  the  final  one 
having  the  greatest  force.  The  impression  is  thus  made  con- 
tinually stronger  until  the  close  is  reached. 

The  following  passage  from  Shakespeare  is  often  quoted  to 
illustrate  other  figures,  but  it  may  be  taken  most  fittingly  as  aa 
example  of  climax : 

"The  cloud-capp'd  towers,  the  gorgeous  palaces, 
The  solemn  temples,  the  great  globe  itself. 
Yea,  all  which  it  inherit,  shall  dissolve, 
And,  like  this  insubstantial  pageant  faded, 
Leave  not  a  wreck  behind." 

The  ascending  series  of  tlioughts  in  this  passage  is  seen  in 
the  words  "  towers,"  "  palaces,"  "  temples,"  the  abodes  of  lords, 
kings,  and  gods.  Then  follows  the  globe  itself,  and  all  which 
it  inherit,  which  comprehends  all  the  others. 

"  For  if  such  holy  song 
Enwrap  our  fancy  long, 

Time  will  run  back  and  fetch  the  age  of  gold ; 
And  speckled  Vanity 
Will  sicken  soon  and  die. 

And  leprous  Sin  will  melt  from  earthly  mould ; 


1 66  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

And  Hell  itself  will  pass  away, 

And  leave  her  dolorous  mansions  to  the  peering  day." 

— Milton. 

Here  the  climax  may  be  stated  as  follows  :  first,  the  return 
of  the  age  of  Gold;  secondly,  the  death  of  Vanity;  thirdly, 
the  departure  of  Sin;  and,  last  of  all,  "Hell  itself  will  pass 
away." 

Similar  examples  of  climax  may  be  found  in  the  following 
passages : 

"  He  had  been  rescued  by  no  common  deliverer  from  the  grasp  of  no 
common  foe.  He  had  been  ransomed  by  the  sweat  of  no  vulgar  agony,  by 
the  blood  of  no  earthly  sacrifice.  It  was  for  him  that  the  sun  had  been 
darkened,  that  the  rocks  had  been  rent,  that  the  dead  had  arisen,  that  all 
nature  had  shuddered  at  the  sufferings  of  her  expiring  God." — Macaulay. 

"Crime  succeeded  to  crime,  and  disgrace  to  disgrace,  till  the  race  ac- 
cursed of  God  and  man  was  a  second  time  driven  forth,  to  wander  on  the 
face  of  the  earth,  and  to  be  a  byword  and  a  shaking  of  the  head  to  the 
nations." — Macaulay. 

"  Thou  didst  blow  with  thy  wind  ;  the  sea  covered  them  :  they  sank  like 
lead  in  the  mighty  waters." — Exodtis. 

"  I  have  fought  a  good  fight,  I  have  finished  my  course,  I  have  kept  the 
faith :  henceforth  there  is  laid  up  for  me  a  crown  of  righteousness." — 
St.  Paul. 

"  If  we  rise  yet  higher,  and  consider  the  fixed  stars  as  so  many  oceans  of 
flame,  that  are  each  of  them  attended  with  a  different  set  of  planets,  and 
still  discover  new  firmaments  and  new  lights  that  are  sunk  farther  in  these 
unfathomable  depths  of  ether,  we  are  lost  in  such  a  labyrinth  of  suns  and 
worlds,  and  confounded  by  the  magnificence  and  immensity  of  nature." — 
Chalmers. 

§   l6l.    INCREMENTUM. 

With  climax  is  now  associated  incrementum,  once  consider- 
ed as  a  separate  figure.  In  this  the  thought  with  which  the 
sentence  begins  is  enlarged,  and  its  force  increased  by  the 
addition  of  others  of  more  importance.  The  following  illus- 
trations present  no  essential  difference  from  those  already 
given  : 

"I  trust  myself  once  more  in  your  faithful  hands.  I  fling  myself  again  on 
you  for  protection.  I  call  aloud  on  you  to  bear  your  own  cause  in  your 
hearts.  "—Brougham. 

"  It  is  coming  fast  upon  you  ;  already  it  is  near  at  hand — yet  in  a  few  short 
weeks,  and  we  may  be  in  the  midst  of  those  unspeakable  miseries  the  rec- 
ollection of  which  now  rends  your  souls  asunder." — Brougham. 


Figures  of  Gradation.  167 

§    162.    PROGRESSIO. 

Progressio  also,  once  considered  as  a  separate  figure,  is  now, 
like  incrementum,  associated  with  climax.  It  is  defined  as  a 
progressive  strengthening  of  the  expression.  The  following  is 
an  example  : 

"  The  minister  alights ;  justice  looks  up  to  him  with  empty  hopes,  and 
peculation  faints  with  idle  alarms ;  he  finds  the  city  a  prey  to  an  unconsti- 
tutional police — he  continues  it ;  he  finds  the  country  overburdened  with  a 
shameful  pension-list — he  increases  it ;  he  finds  the  House  of  Commons 
swarming  with  placemen — he  multiplies  them ;  he  finds  the  salary  of  the 
secretary  increased  to  prevent  a  pension — he  grants  a  pension  ;  he  finds  the 
kingdom  drained  by  absentee  employments  and  by  compensations  to  buy 
them  home ;  he  gives  the  best  reversion  in  the  country  to  an  absentee — his 
brother."— Grattan. 

§   163.    HYPERBOLE. 

Hyperbole  may  be  considered  as  the  highest  form  of  the 
augmentative  figures.  It  gives  the  largest  possible  liberty  to 
the  imagination,  and  for  this  reason  is  often  classified  with  the 
figures  of  similarity,  with  which  imagination  has  more  to  do. 
It  is  properly,  however,  one  of  the  figures  of  gradation. 

Hyperbole  may  be  defined  as  the  enlargement  of  an  object 
beyond  its  natural  and  proper  dimensions.  Quintilian  calls 
it  "an  elegant  surpassing  of  truth."  In  its  highest  form  it  is 
associated  with  excitement  of  feeling. 

This  is  seen  in  Satan's  despairing  soliloquy  in  Paradise  Lost: 

"  Beneath  the  lowest  deep,  a  lower  deep. 
Still  threatening  to  devour  me,  opens  wide." 

This  is  not  to  be  criticised  for  its  grammar;  but  to  be  taken 
as  the  language  of  intense  emotion. 

"  Mean  weeds,"  says  Carlyle,  in  his  description  of  the  exe- 
cution of  Marie  Antoinette,  "clothe  the  Queen  of  the  world." 

Burke's  well-known  passage  on  the  same  Marie  Antoinette 
affords  another  example  : 

**  Never  lighted  on  this  orb,  which  she  hardly  seemed  to  touch,  a  more 
delightful  vision." 

Emerson's  lines  contain  an  hyperbole  of  the  best  kind : 

"  Here  once  the  embattled  farmers  stood, 
And  fired  the  shot  heard  round  the  world." 


1 68  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

§    164.    TRANSGRESSIO. 

With  hyperbole  may  be  associated  a  form  of  statement  once 
considered  as  a  separate  figure,  and  called  "  transgressio,"  which 
consists  of  any  kind  of  exaggeration.  It  therefore  includes 
the  following  in  addition  to  those  which  have  already  been  no- 
ticed: 

1.  Animated  description  passing  beyond  literal  truth.  This 
may  be  allowed  as  legitimate  hyperbole,  or,  if  a  separate  name 
be  preferred,  transgressio.  Poets,  orators,  and  writers  of  fiction 
all  indulge  in  this  exaggerated  statement,  and  Victor  Hugo's 
writings  abound  in  it 

"  This  is  our  bad  condition  here.  How  much  worse  it  is  ten  miles  from 
Boston  you  may  conceive.     The  darkness  might  be  felt" — Fisher  Ames* 

2.  Many  colloquial  expressions  illustrate  this  figure ;  as  "  to 
cry  one's  eyes  out,"  "  to  weep  as  if  one's  heart  would  break," 
"to  split  one's  sides  with  laughing."  "  If  a  young  merchant 
fails,"  says  Emerson,  "  men  say  he  is  ruined." 

3.  Humorous  writing  abounds  in  this;  indeed,  a  distinct  de- 
partment of  this  sort  of  literature,  /.  ^.,  American,  is  based  upon 
exaggeration. 

Hyperbole,  when  improperly  used,  is  certain  to  degenerate 
into  bombast. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

FIGURES  OF  GRADATION.— DECREMENTIVE. 

§  165.  DECREMENTIVE    FIGURES. 

Under  this  class  is  included  those  various  forms  of  expres- 
sion by  which  any  given  subject  is  diminished  before  the  mind 
and  divested  of  its  ordinary  importance.  They  are  the  opposite 
of  those  which  have  just  been  considered  ;  but  like  them  are 
applicable  to  leading  propositions,  deductions,  and  conclusions. 
While  the  augmentative  figures  present  these  in  the  most  strik- 
ing and  effective  manner,  so  that  they  may  arrest  the  attention, 
the  decrementive  forms  are  used  to  lessen  their  importance,  and 


Figures  of  Gradation.  169 

make  them  appear  of  little  value.  The  former  would  be  ap- 
plied by  the  writer  to  his  chief  topics  to  enhance  their  value, 
and  the  latter  would  be  applied  by  his  opponent  to  the  same 
topics  to  diminish  that  value. 

§  166.   DIMINUTION. 

Diminution  is  the  opposite  of  amplification,  and  may  be 
defined  as  the  lowering  of  the  importance  of  any  topic  by  the 
assemblage  of  particulars  designedly  introduced  for  the  pur- 
pose of  lessening  its  force  and  proper  value.  As  amplifica- 
tion may  proceed  through  many  stages  of  expansion,  so  this 
lowering  process  may  consist  of  many  gradations,  from  the 
slightest  diminution  of  any  given  subject  to  the  lowest  possible 
depreciation,  accompanied  with  contempt  and  ridicule.  All 
the  modes  by  which  the  one  may  be  effected  have  also  their 
counterparts  in  the  other. 

1.  This  figure  is  exhibited,  first,  in  the  form  of  direct  state- 
ment :  as —  ., ,,,.,,  ^  J  .  , .    . 

'  "  Will  God  incense  his  ire 

For  such  a  petty  trespass?" — Milton. 
Here  the  offence  is  affirmed  to  be  "  petty  "  simply  in  itself. 
"  Did  ye  not  hear  it  ?    No.    *Twas  but  the  wind." — Byron. 

2.  Sometimes  diminution  is  made  by  means  of  a  comparison 
with  some  other  object : 

"  Nature  will  not  have  us  fret  and  fume.  When  we  comb  out  of  the  cau- 
cus, or  the  bank,  or  the  temperance  meeting,  or  the  Transcendental  Club 
into  the  fields  and  woods,  she  says  to  us — '  So  hot,  my  little  sir  I' " — Emer- 
son. 

Here  the  excitement  of  common  life  is  made  to  seem  trivial 
beside  the  grand  calm  of  Nature. 

"  How  it  aggravates  the  disgust  with  which  these  paste  diamonds  are  now 
viewed,  to  remember  that  they  were  paraded  in  the  presence  of  Edmund 
Burke — nay  (credite  postert),  in  jealous  rivalry  of  his  genuine  and  priceless 
jewels.  Irresistibly  one  is  reminded  of  the  dancing  efforts  of  Lady  Blarney 
and  Miss  Carolina  Wilhelmina  Skeggs  against  the  native  grace  of  the  Vicar 
of  Wakefield's  family." — De  Quincey. 

The  Style  of  Sheridan,  when  set  in  comparison  with  that  of 
Burke,  is  thus  made  to  appear  tawdry  and  meretricious. 

"  And  what  is  this  world  in  the  immensity  which  teems  with  them,  and 
what  are  they  who  occupy  it  ?    The  universe  at  large  would  suffer  as  little 


I/O  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

in  its  splendor  and  variety,  by  the  destruction  of  our  planet,  as  the  verdure 
and  sublime  magnitude  of  a  forest  would  suffer  by  the  fall.of  a  single  leaf." 
— Chalmers, 

Here  this  world  and  all  its  concerns  are  made  to  appear  in- 
significant in  comparison  with  the  immensity  of  the  universe. 

"  An  Aristotle  was  but  the  rubbish  of  an  Adam,  and  Athens  but  the 
rudiments  of  Paradise."— Dr.  R.  South. 

Man  at  his  best  is  here  represented  as  of  little  worth  when 
compared  with  the  possibilities  which  lay  before  him,  had  he 
kept  his  first  estate. 

3.  It  is  also  sometimes  effected  by  accumulation  ;  that  is  to 
say,  a  number  of  particulars  are  gathered  together  for  the  ex- 
press purpose  of  lowering  the  importance  of  any  given  subject : 

"  What,  then,  have  you  made  Ireland  ?  Look  at  her  again.  This  fine 
country  is  laden  with  a  population  the  most  miserable  in  Europe,  and  of 
whose  wretchedness,  if  you  are  the  authors,  you  are  beginning  to  be  the 
victims ;  the  poisoned  chalice  is  returning  in  its  just  circulation  to  your 
own  lips.  Your  domestic  swine  are  better  housed  than  the  people.  Har- 
vests the  most  abundant  are  reaped  by  men  with  starvation  in  their  faces, 
famine  covers  a  fruitful  soil,  and  disease  inhales  a  pure  atmosphere ;  all 
the  great  commercial  facilities  of  the  country  are  lost ;  the  deep  rivers  that 
should  circulate  opulence  and  turn  the  machinery  of  a  thousand  factories 
flow  to  the  ocean  without  wafting  a  boat  or  turning  a  mill ;  and  the  wave 
breaks  in  solitude  in  the  silent  magnificence  of  deserted  and  shipless  har- 
bors."— Daniel  O'Connell. 

In  this  passage  there  is  an  accumulation  of  particulars  re- 
ferring to  the  condition  of  Ireland,  for  the  purpose  of  repre- 
senting that  country  at  its  very  worst. 

§  167.   DEPRECIATION. 

Depreciation  is  diminution  associated  with  the  feeling  of 
contempt. 

An  illustration  of  this  may  be  found  in  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's 
verses,  "  Go,  Soul,  the  Body's  Guest,"  from  which  are  taken  the 
following  lines : 

"  Tell  physic  of  her  boldness, 
Tell  skill  it  is  pretension. 
Tell  charity  of  coldness, 
Tell  law  it  is  contention. 
And  as  they  do  reply — 
So  give  them  both  the  lie." 


Figures  of  Gradation.  171 

Dean  Swift's  well-known  lines  convey  still  greater  contempt : 

"  So,  naturalists  observe,  a  flea. 
Has  smaller  fleas  on  him  that  prey; 
And  these  have  smaller  ones  to  bite  'em, 
And  so  proceed  ad  infinitum. 
Thus  every  poet  in  his  kind 
Is  bit  by  him  that  comes  behind. 
Who,  though  too  little  to  be  seen, 
Can  tease,  and  gall,  and  give  the  spleen." 

Contemptuous  depreciation  is  nowhere  more  forcibly  ex- 
pressed than  in  the  words  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole  : 

*'A  patriot,  sir?  Why,  patriots  spring  up  like  mushrooms.  I  could 
raise  fifty  of  them  in  four-and-twenty  hours." 

In  the  following  passages  De  Quincey  depreciates  the  elo- 
quence of  Sheridan  : 

•*  In  the  course  of  the  Hastings  trial  upon  the  concerns  of  paralytic  Be- 
gums and  ancient  Rannies — hags  that,  if  ever  actually  existing,  were  no 
more  to  us  and  our  British  sympathies  than  we  to  Hecuba — did  Mr.  Sheri- 
dan make  his  capital  exhibition.  .  .  .  Considered  as  rhetoric,  it  is  evidently 
fitted  to  '  make  a  horse  sick  ;'  but,  as  a  conundrum  in  the  '  Lady's  Maga- 
zine,'we  contend  that  it  would  have  great  success." 

Here  depreciation  is  heightened  by  the  employment  of  vitu- 
perative epithets,  low  images,  and  colloquialisms,  such  as  "  par- 
alytic Begums,"  "hags,"  "  making  a  horse  sick,"  "conundrum," 
etc.  In  the  following  passage  from  one  of  the  speeches  of 
Mr.  John  Bright,  there  will  also  be  found  depreciation  by  means 
of  trivial  associations  : 

"In  pursuit  of  this  Will-o'-the-Wisp — the  liberties  of  Europe  and  the 
balance  of  power — there  has  been  extracted  from  the  industry  of  the  people 
of  this  small  island  no  less  an  amount  than  two  thousand  millions  of  pounds." 

§  168.  ANTICLIMAX. 

Anticlimax  is  usually  considered  in  connection  with  climax, 
although  it  belongs  to  an  opposite  class  of  figures,  the  one  be- 
ing augmentative  and  the  other  decrementive  ;  so  that  while  the 
former  enhances  the  importance  of  the  subject,  the  latter  dimin- 
ishes or  degrades  it. 

In  climax  the  thoughts  are  arranged  in  an  ascending  series, 
the  most  important  being  reserved  until  the  last.  In  anticli- 
max the  thoughts  are  also  arranged  in  an  ascending  series,  but 

H  2 


1/2  Elements  of  Rhetor k, 

in  the  last  place,  instead  of  the  most  important,  there  suddenly 
occurs  something  trivial : 

"  The  king  of  France,  with  twice  ten  thousand  men, 
Marched  up  the  hill,  and  then — marched  down  again." 

"  Here  thou,  great  Anna !  whom  three  realms  obey, 
Dost  sometimes  counsel  take,  and  sometimes — tea." 

The  effect  of  anticlimax  is  generally  ludicrous,  and  when 
used  intentionally  it  tends  to  depreciate  the  subject  to  which 
it  is  applied  by  covering  it  with  ridicule.  It  is,  therefore,  very 
frequently  employed  in  humorous  and  satirical  composition. 
But  it  is  sometimes  used  unintentionally,  and  then  it  is  called 
"  bathos,"  the  effect  being  to  turn  the  ridicule  with  which  it  is 
associated  upon  the  writer  himself.  The  following  are  ex- 
amples : 

"  And  thou,  DsUhousie,  the  great  god  of  war, 
Lieutenant-colonel  to  the  Earl  of  Mar." 

*'  They  gazed  in  awe  uf)on  the  Corsican, 
That  mighty-minded — but  small-bodied  man." 

*•  The  arm  of  the  Lord,"  said  a  preacher,  "  is  as  fixed  as  fiate,  as  sure  as 
eternity — as  strong  as  the  rock  of  Gibraltar." 

"  Were  Russia  to  possess  the  Bosporus,"  says  a  recent  writer,  '*  and  the 
Turks  be  driven  out,  progress  would  cease.  The  missionaries  would  be 
exiled,  religious  freedom  crushed  out,  and  ninety  millions  of  people  speak- 
ing one  language  would  be  brought  under  the  yoke  of  an  iron  despotism, 
which  in  its  strength  and  noiseless  movement  is  as  resistless  as  the  great 
Corliss  engine  at  Philadelphia." 


CHAPTER  VII. 

FIGURES    OF    EMPHASIS.  — DIRECT    STRESS    AND 
ITERATION. 

§  169.   FIGURES   OF   EMPHASIS. 

Emphasis  in  general  means  a  certain  stress  placed  upon 
words.  Figures  of  emphasis  include  all  those  by  which  any 
given  word  or  subject  is  presented  before  the  mind  with  the 
greatest  possible  strength  and  energy.  Words,  phrases,  and 
whole  sentences  may  thus  be  emphasized. 


Figures  of  Emphasis.  173 

Three  general  groups  are  included  here  : 

1.  Where  direct  stress  is  laid  upon  words, 

2.  Where  emphasis  is  produced  by  a  change  in  the  order  of 
words. 

3.  Where  statements  are  made  in  a  way  which  is  unusual  or 
startling. 

§  170.   EMPHASIS    BY    DIRECT   STRESS. — ASSERTION. 

A  direct  stress  is  sometimes  laid  upon  words.  This  is  pro- 
duced, first,  by  assertion,  and,  secondly,  by  repetition. 

I.  By  emphatic  assertion  is  meant  the  statement  of  a  thing 
with  more  or  less  vehemence,  as  in  the  following  examples : 

"  He  is  fallen  !  We  may  now  pause  before  that  splendid  prodigy  which 
towered  amidst  us  like  some  ancient  ruin,  whose  frown  terrified  the  glances 
its  magnificence  attracted." — Charles  Phillips. 

In  this  passage  the  emphasis  on  the  words,  "  He  is  fallen," 
is  direct,  intense,  and  unmistakable. 

"  But  you  see,  sir — the  balance  of  power.  Gentlemen  assert  that  the  en- 
trance of  France  into  Spain  disturbed  that  balance,  and  that  we  ought  to 
have  gone  to  war  to  restore  it." — George  Canning. 

The  words,  "  the  balance  of  power,"  are  put  forth  prominently 
with  strong  emphasis,  both  by  the  preceding  words,  "  but  you 
see,  sir,"  and  the  subsequent  allusions  to  "  that  balance." 

"  I  say  that  the  education  of  the  people  ought  to  be  the  first  concern  of 
the  state." — Macaulay. 

The  words,  "  I  say,"  call  attention  to  the  whole  statement 
which  follows. 

"  I  will  give,  therefore,  at  once  and  without  hesitation,  an  emphatic  nega- 
tive to  the  motion  for  repeal.  There  are  truths  that  lie  too  deep  for  argu- 
ment— truths  to  the  establishment  of  which  the  evidence  of  the  senses  or 
the  feelings  of  the  heart  have  contributed  more  than  the  slow  processes  of 
reasoning — which  are  graven  in  deeper  characters  than  any  that  reason  can 
either  impress  or  efface.  When  Dr.  Johnson  was  asked  to  refute  the  argu- 
ments for  the  non-existence  of  matter,  he  stamped  his  foot  upon  the  ground, 
and  exclaimed,  *  I  refute  them  thus.'  When  Mr.  Canning  heard  the  first 
whisper  in  this  house  of  a  repeal  of  the  Union,  this  was  all  the  answer  that 
he  vouchsafed — the  eloquent  and  indignant  answer — *  Repeal  the  Union  ? 
Restore  the  Heptarchy  !* " — Sir  Robert  Peel. 

These  sayings  of  Johnson  and  Canning  are  introduced  with 


174  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

great  effect,  and  tend  to  throw  stronger  emphasis  upon  the 
speaker's  own  negative  to  the  motion  for  repeal. 

§   171.   NEGATION. 

Negation  is  a  statement  thrown  into  a  negative  form.  It 
may  be  associated  with  the  highest  excitement  of  feeling  or 
the  mildest  animation.  It  may  assume  the  interrogative  or 
the  exclamatory  form,  and  it  may  be  susceptible  of  the  strong- 
est or  the  lightest  emphasis. 

"  Not  every  one  that  saith  unto  me,  '  Lord,  Lord,'  shall  enter  into  the 
kingdom  of  heaven." 

"  Not  all  the  blood  of  beasts, 
On  Jewish  altars  slain. 
Could  give  the  guilty  conscience  peace. 
Or  wash  away  the  stain." 

In  these  and  similar  passages  the  emphasis  is  intensified  by 
the  position  of  the  negative  particle. 

"  Never  was  there  a  jar  or  discord  between  genuine  sentiment  and  sound 
policy.  Never,  no,  never  did  nature  say  one  thing  and  wisdom  say  an- 
other."—BuRKE. 

•'  Never — never  more 
While  I  live. 
May  I  hope  to  see  his  face 
As  before." — Browning. 

"No;  a  thousand  times  no." — Kossuth. 

"It  was  not  in  the  battle." — Cowper. 

§   172.    EMPHASIS   BY   REPETITION. 

2.  Another  kind  of  emphasis  is  that  which  arises  from  the 
repetition  of  the  same  word  or  sentiment.  This  has  given  rise 
to  a  numerous  class  of  figures,  which  are  called  iterative. 
Their  effectiveness  depends  altogether  upon  the  well-known 
emphasis  that  arises  from  the  repetition  of  a  word.  For  if  a 
word  or  statement  is  uttered  once,  its  emphasis  can  never  be 
so  strong  but  that  it  may  be  increased  by  repetition.  An  ex- 
ample of  this  may  be  seen  in  the  speech  of  the  Earl  of  Chat- 
ham : 

"  If  I  were  an  American,  as  I  am  an  Englishman,  while  a  foreign  troop 
were  landed  in  my  country,  I  would  never  lay  down  my  arms — never,  never, 
never !" 


Figures  of  Emphasis.  175 

§    173.    THE    ITERATIVE    FIGURES. 

The  iterative  figures  comprise  many  which  are  distinguish- 
ed by  names  now  but  seldom  used ;  yet  these,  like  previous 
ones,  will  be  defined  and  illustrated  for  the  sake  of  clearness 
and  completeness  of  treatment.  At  the  same  time,  by  includ- 
ing them  all  under  one  well-defined  head,  there  need  be  no 
danger  of  confounding  them  with  others  of  a  different  nature. 

§   174.    EPIZEUXIS. 

Epizeuxis  is  immediate  repetition  for  the  sake  of  emphasis : 

"  You  cannot,  my  Lords,  you  cannot  conquer  America." — Earl  of  Chat- 
ham. 

"  Arm  !  arm  !  it  is,  it  is  the  cannon's  opening  roar  !" — Byron. 

"Charge,  Chester,  charge  !  on,  Stanley,  on  !" — ScoiT. 

"  Remind  me  not,  remind  me  not." — Byron's  Hebrew  Melodies. 

"Can  I  forget,  can  I  forget?" — Byron's  Hebrew  Melodies. 

"  A  floating,  a  floating, 

All  on  a  summer  sea." — Kingslky. 

"The  day  of  the  Lord  is  at  hand,  at  hand." — Kingsley. 
"Few,  few  shall  part  where  many  meet." — Campbell. 

This  figure  is  frequent  in  oratory;  it  is  also  common  in 
songs:  as — 

"  I'm  afloat,  I'm  afloat." 

"Lochaber  no  more,  Lochaber  no  more. 
We'll  maybe  return  to  Lochaber  no  more." 

§   175.    REPETITIO   CREBRA. 

3.  Sometimes  the  word  is  repeated  frequently;  and  this  is 
called  "  repetitio  crebra :" 

"  The  double,  double,  double  beat 
Of  the  thundering  drum." — Dryden. 

"  He  sang  Darius,  good  and  great. 
Fallen,  fallen,  fallen,  fallen. 
Fallen  from  his  high  estate." — Dryden. 

"  None  but  the  brave, 
None  but  the  brave. 
None  but  the  brave  deserves  the  fair." — Dryden. 


\'j(i  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

"  With  honor,  honor,  honor,  honor  to  him, 
Eternal  honor  to  his  name."— Tennyson. 

In  Poe's  Song  of  the  Bells  there  are  examples  of  more  fre- 
quent repetitions  of  the  same  word  than  can  be  found  any- 
where else. 

§    176.    ANAPHORA. 

4.  Anaphora  is  the  repetition  of  a  word  at  the  beginning  of 
successive  clauses  or  sentences.  An  example  of  this  is  found 
in  the  "  Pricke  of  Conscience"  by  Richard  Rolle  de  Hampole  : 

"Thare  es  ay  lyfe  withouten  dede, 
Thare  es  yhowthe  ay  withouten  elde, 
Thare  es  alkyn  welth  ay  to  welde, 
Thare  es  rest  ay  withouten  travayle, 
Thare  es  alle  gudes  that  never  sal  fayle." 

"Truth-teller  was  our  English  Alfred  named, 
Truth-teller  was  our  English  Duke." — Tennyson. 

"By  foreign  hands  thy  dying  eyes  were  closed. 
By  foreign  hands  thy  decent  limbs  composed. 
By  foreign  hands  thy  humble  grave  adorned, 
By  strangers  honored,  and  by  strangers  mourned." — Pope. 

"  •  Educate  the  people,'  was  the  admonition  by  Penn  to  the  common- 
wealth he  founded.  'Educate  the  people,'  was  the  last  legacy  of  Washing- 
ton to  the  Republic  of  the  United  Stales.  'Educate  the  people,'  was  the 
unceasing  exhortation  of  Jefferson." — Macaulay. 

**  It  was  Homer  who  gave  laws  to  the  artist ;  it  was  Homer  who  inspired 
the  poet ;  it  was  Homer  who  thundered  in  the  senate  ;  and,  more  than  all, 
it  was  Homer  who  was  sung  by  the  people." — Wayland. 

"  It  shall  go  forth,  exulting  in,  but  not  abusing  its  strength.  It  shall  go 
forth,  remembering  in  its  prosperity  the  pledges  it  gave  in  the  time  of  its 
depression.  It  shall  go  forth,  uniting  a  disposition  to  correct  abuses,  and 
to  redress  grievances.  It  shall  go  forth,  uniting  the  disposition  to  improve, 
with  the  resolution  to  maintain  and  defend." — Sir  Robert  Peel. 

The  most  celebrated  example  of  this  figure  is  to  be  found  in 
the  peroration  of  Burke's  great  speech  against  Warren  Hastings, 
where  six  sentences  full  of  intense  passion  are  arranged  in  an 
ascending  series,  and  each  begins  with  the  words,  "  I  impeach." 

§   177.    EPISTROPHE. 

Epistrophe  is  the  repetition  of  the  same  word  at  the  end  of 
successive  clauses  or  sentences  : 

"  The  glorious  company  of  the  apostles  praise  thee  ;  the  godly  fellowship 
of  the  saints  praise  thee  ;  the  noble  army  of  martyrs  praise  thee." 


Figures  of  Emphasis.  177 

*'  Lust  will  become  a  law ;  envy  will  become  a  law ;  covetousness  and 
ambition  will  become  a  law." — John  Pym. 

"  The  borrower  is  timid ;  our  laws  are  timid ;  the  cultivated  classes  are 
timid." — Emerson. 

§   178.    ANTISTROPHE. 

Antistrophe  is  that  figure  by  which  the  same  word  is  placed 
both  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  a  clause  or  sentence  : 

"  Fare  thee  well  !  and  if  forever, 
Still  forever,  fare  thee  well." — Byron. 

"  A  mother's  love !    how  sweet  the  name ! 

What  is  a  mother's  love?" — Montgomery. 

"  Where's  Harry  Blount,  Fitz-Eustace  where  ?" — Scott. 

"  Loyalty  is  a  noble,  a  judicious,  and  a  capacious  principle  ;  but  in  these 
countries  loyalty  distinct  from  liberty  is  corruption,  not  loyalty." — Grat- 

TAN. 

§   179.    EPANAPHORA. 

Epanaphora  may  be  defined  as  that  figure  by  which  seveial 
clauses  have  the  same  word  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end 
of  successive  clauses  or  sentences  : 

"  When  you  enact  that  on  account  of  his  religion  no  Catholic  shall  sit  in 
Parliament,  you  do  what  amounts  to  the  tyranny  of  a  sect.  When  you  en- 
act that  no  Catholic  shall  be  a  sheriff,  you  do  what  amounts  to  the  tyranny 
of  a  sect.  When  you  enact  that  no  Catholic  shall  be  a  general,  you  do 
what  amounts  to  the  tyranny  of  a  sect." — Grattan. 

§   180.   ANADIPLOSIS. 

Anadiplosis  is  that  figure  by  which  the  word  used  at  the  end 
of  one  sentence  or  clause  is  repeated  at  the  beginning  of  an- 
other : 

"  When  the  sun  set,  where  were  they ! 
And  where  are  they,  and  where  art  thou, 
My  country." — Byron. 

"Three  fishers  went  sailing  out  into  the  west, 
Out  into  the  west  as  the  sun  went  down." — Kingsley. 

"Lycidas  is  dead — dead  ere  his  prime." — Milton. 

"  If  you  do  not  go  forth  on  this  occasion  to  the  aid  of  Portugal,  Portugal 
will  be  trampled  down,  to  your  irrecoverable  disgrace  ;  and  then  war  will 
come,  and  come,  too,  in  the  train  of  degradation." — Canning. 

"  That  occupation  is  an  unpaid  and  unredeemed  burden  to  France. 
France  would  be  glad  to  get  rid  of  the  possession  of  Spain." — Canning. 


178  Elemeyits  of  RJietoric. 

*'  The  same  country  is  once  more  awake — awake  to  the  condition  of  negro 
slavery." — Brougham. 

§    181.    EPANODOS. 

Epanodos  is  the  repetition  of  a  word  anywhere  within  the 
sentence,  either  in  the  same  sense' or  in  different  senses  : 
«  Will  it  be  next  week,  or  next  year  ?"— Patrick  Henry. 

"Thine  island  loves  thee  well,  thou  famous  man, 
The  greatest  sailor  since  the  world  began ; 
Now  to  the  roll  of  muffled  drums, 
To  thee  the  greatest  soldier  comes."— Tennyson. 

"  Bounce  is  never  a  thing  to  be  proud  of,  but  prudently  calculated  bounce 
is  a  thing  altogether  contemptible." — Pall  Mall  Gazette. 

This  figure  is  also  called  "  regressio." 

§   182.    EPANALEPSIS. 

Epanalepsis  is  like  epanodos,  but  differs  in  this,  that  while 
the  latter  is  the  repetition  of  a  word  anywhere  in  the  sentence, 
the  former  is  the  repetition  of  a  word  in  different  sentences : 

•'  He  have  arbitrary  power !  My  lords,  the  East  India  Company  have 
not  arbitrary  power  to  give  him  ;  the  king  has  no  arbitrary  power  to  give 
him  ;  your  lordships  have  it  not ;  nor  the  Commons  ;  nor  the  whole  legis- 
lature. We  have  no  arbitrary  power  to  give,  because  arbitrary  power  is  a 
thing  which  neither  any  man  can  hold  nor  any  man  can  give." — Bukke. 

§   183.    PLOCE. 

Ploce  is  the  repetition  of  the  same  word  under  different  forms 
or  with  different  meanings  in  the  same  sentence.  It  often  re- 
fers to  the  repetition  of  proper  names:  as — 

**  I  love  and  honor  Epaminondas  ;  but  I  do  not  wish  to  be  Epaminondas." 
— Emerson. 

"  Hills  peep  o'er  hills,  and  Alps  on  Alps  arise." — Pope. 

But  its  more  general  use  refers  to  common  terms :  as — 

*•  Judge  not,  that  ye  be  not  judged." 

"  We  have  petitioned  ;  we  have  remonstrated  ;  we  have  supplicated  ;  we 
have  prostrated  ourselves  before  the  throne,  and  implored  its  interposition 
to  arrest  the  tyrannical  hands  of  the  ministry  and  Parliament  Our  peti- 
tions have  been  slighted  ;  our  remonstrances  have  produced  additional  vio- 
lence and  insult ;  our  supplications  have  been  disregarded  ;  and  we  have 
been  spurned  with  contempt  from  the  foot  of  the  throne." — Patrick 
Henry. 


Figures  of  Emphasis.  179 

Several  other  figures  are  now  combined  with  ploce. 
Paregmenon,  which  is  the  use  of  several  words  of  the  same 
origin  : 

"  Judge  righteous  judgment." 

"  Drops  the  light  drip  of  the  suspended  oar." — Byron. 
"  The  varnished  clock  that  clicked  behind  the  door." — Goldsmith. 
♦♦  All  mankind  love  a  lover." — Emerson. 

Polyptoton — a  repetition  with  change  of  cases  or  tenses : 

"  I  dreamed  a  dream." 

"  On  apples,  apples ;  figs  on  figs  arise." — Pope,  Odyssey. 

These  may  be  considered  as  constituting  the  same  figure, 
and  the  illustration  of  one  is  suitable  to  all. 

§   184.    SYMPLOCE. 

Symploce  is  the  repetition  of  a  word  at  the  beginning,  and 
of  another  at  the  end  of  successive  clauses.  Although  some- 
times confounded  with  ploce,  it  is  really  identical  with  epana- 
phora,  which  has  already  been  explained  and  illustrated  (§  179). 

§   185.    SVNONYMIA. 

Synonymia  is  a  term  applied  to  cases  where  several  words 
or  phrases  of  similar  signification  follow  one  another: 

"  Abiit,  erupit,  evasit." — Cicero. 
.  "I  am  astonished,  I  am  shocked." — Chatham. 
"They  are  various,  they  are  conflicting." 

"  For  this  great  town,  for  the  country  at  large,  whose  cause  we  are  up- 
holding, whose  fight  we  are  fighting." — Brougham. 

This  figure  often  consists  of  words  used  in  pairs.  A  remark- 
able example  is  found  in  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  : 

"The  Scripture  moveth  us  in  sundry  places  to  acknowledge  and  confess 
our  manifold  sins  and  wickedness,  and  that  we  should  not  dissemble  nor 
cloak  them  ..." 

§  186.  ALLITERATION. 

Alliteration  is  the  repetition  of  the  same  initial  letter  of  em- 
phatic words.  Although  the  same  word  is  not  repeated,  yet  it 
may  be  classed  among  the  iterative  figures,  since  it  tends  to 
emphasis  by  means  of  repetition  : 

"  The  /loughman  homeward  /lods  his  weary  way." 
"The  winds  in  wonder  wist." 
"  All  ye  that  /abor  and  are  heavy  /aden." 


i8o  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Alliteration  was  once  of  far  more  importance  than  at  the 
present  day,  for  out  of  it  arose  the  whole  versification  of  the 
Teutonic  race.  The  poetry  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  Scandi- 
navians still  attests  its  capabilities  in  this  respect.  Alliterative 
verse  lingered  in  English  literature  until  the  age  of  Chaucer, 
when  important  poems  were  written  in  it,  of  which  the  chief 
is  "  The  Vision  concerning  Piers  the  Plowman."  The  follow- 
ing passage  may  serve  as  a  specimen  : 

"  I  was  weory  of  wandringe, 

And  wente  me  to  reste 
Undur  a  brod  banke 

By  a  bourne  syde ; 
And,  as  I  lay  and  leonede, 

And  lokede  on  the  watres, 
I  slumberede  in  a  slepyng 

Hit  sownede  so  murie." 

The  alliterative  principle  has  never  ceased  to  be  present  in 
English  poetry,  and  may  be  seen  in  many  familiar  verses : 

"  There  will  we  jit  upon  the  rocks. 
And  jee  the  xhepherds /eed  their /locks, 
By  shallow  rivers,  to  whose  fa\\& 
J/elodious  birds  sing  iwadrigaJs." — Marlowe. 

*  When  to  the  jejjions  of  jweet  jilent  thought 
I  jummon  up  remembrance  of  things  past." — Shakespeare. 

"  /reeze,  freeze,  thou  bitter  sky, 
Thou  dost  not  ^ite  so  nigh 

As  ^nefits  forgot 
7'hough  /hou  the  waters  warp. 
Thy  Jting  is  not  so  jharp 
As  friend  remembered  not" — Shakespeare. 

"^ull  ^thorns /ive  thy^ther  lies."— Shakespeare. 

Alliteration  abounds  in  Milton's  poems.  In  the  ode  on  the 
Nativity  are  the  following  examples,  and  many  more  :  "  Solemn 
strain,"  "  lay  it  lowly,"  "  winter  wild,"  "  foul  deformities,"  "  soft- 
ly sliding,"  "  waving  wide,"  "  Cynthia's  seat,"  "  sworded  sera- 
phim," "on  hinges  hung,"  "hideous  hum,"  "dismal  dance." 
The  whole  poem  affords  examples  of  alliteration  in  every  stan- 
za, the  alliterated  words  in  most  cases  being  separated,  as  in 
the  following  lines : 


Figures  of  Emphasis,  i8i 

"  Nor  is  Osiris  seen 
In  Memphian  ^rove  or  ^een 
Trampling  the  unshowered  ^rass  with  /owings  /oud." 

The  later  poets  present  equally  striking  examples :  as — 

"The  master  saw  the  madness  rise." — Dryden. 

"With  woful  measures  wan  Despair, 

Low,  sullen  sounds  his  grief  beguiled." — Collins. 

"  Ne'er  sighed  at  the  sound  of  a  knell, 
Or  smiled  when  a  Sabbath  appeared." — Cowper. 

"  Ye  banks  and  braes  o'  bonnie  Doon, 

How  can  ye  bloom  sae  fresh  and  fair?" — Burns. 

"  She  walks  in  beauty,  like  the  night 
Of  cloudless  climes  and  starry  skies." — Byron. 

"  Britannia  needs  no  bulwarks. 
No  towers  along  the  steep ; 
Her  march  is  o'er  the  mountain  waves, 
Her  home  is  on  the  deep." — Campbell. 

"Where  furious  Frank  and  fiery  Hun 

Shout  in  their  sulphurous  canopy." — CAMPBELL. 

"  Like  a  glow-worm  golden 

In  a  dell  of  dew." — Shelley. 

"  Best  and  brightest,  come  away. 
Fairer  far  than  this  fair  day." — Shelley. 

"  He  clasps  the  crag  with  hooked  hands. 
Close  to  the  sun  in  lonely  lands." — Tennyson. 

"Fairer  than  all  fancy  fathoms,  falser  than  all  songs  have  sung." 

— Tennyson. 

Alliteration  is  used  to  give  emphasis  to  proverbs  ;  as— 

"  All  is  not  gold  that  glitters." 

"  A  bird  in  the  hand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush." 

"  Sweets  to  the  sweet." 

"  Many  men  of  many  minds." 

"Fingers  were  made  before  forks." 

"Penny  wise,  pound  foolish." 

"  Take  care  of  the  pence,  and  the  pounds  will  take  care  of  themselves." 

"Love  me  little,  love  me  long." 

"  Better  be  an  old  man's  darling  than  a  young  man's  drudge." 

The  titles  of  books  are  often  alliterative  :  Piers  Plowman ; 
the  Pilgrim's  Progress ;  the  Dairyman's  Daughter ;  the  Saint 
and  his  Saviour ;  Frost  and  Fire. 


1 82  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

§  187.   HOMCEOTELEUTON. 

Homoeoteleuton  is  the  opposite  of  alliteration,  being  the  repe- 
tition of  the  same  sound  at  the  end  of  words.  Formerly  it  was 
of  little  importance,  but  in  modern  times  it  has  risen  to  be  one 
of  the  leading  elements  in  versification.  For  rhyme  is  the  same 
as  homoeoteleuton,  and  in  the  presence  of  its  superior  music 
and  power  alliteration  has  given  way.  Its  importance  in  ver- 
sification will  be  considered  elsewhere.  In  prose  it  has  no 
place  whatever  at  the  present  day,  although  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  made  use  of  it  not  unfrequently. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


FIGURES  OF  EMPHASIS  ARISING  FROM  THE  INVERSION 
OF  WORDS. 

§    188.  INVERSION. 

We  have  next  to  consider  those  figures  which  produce  em- 
phasis by  a  change  in  the  position  of  words.  This  is  called 
inversion. 

The  order  of  words  differs  in  different  languages.  In  some 
the  subject  stands  first,  then  the  predicate,  and  then  the  object: 
as,  "James  strikes  John."  In  others  the  predicate  follows  the 
object :  as,  "James  John  strikes."  Neither  can  be  called  "  the 
natural  order,"  for  every  language  has  its  own  usage  in  ac- 
cordance with  its  own  genius. 

A  marked  difference  is  to  be  obser\'ed  between  inflected  and 
uninflected  languages  as  regards  the  order  of  words.  In  the 
former  this  is  of  secondary  importance,  since  the  meaning  of  a 
sentence  depends  upon  inflection  ;  but  in  the  latter  it  is  of  the 
first  importance,  since  the  meaning  depends  upon  position.  It 
is  chiefly  in  this  respect  that  the  modern  languages  of  Europe 
differ  from  the  ancient,  and  the  English  from  the  Latin.  Thus 
in  Latin  we  can  say  either  Ccesar  Pompeium  vicit^  or  Pompeium 
vicit  Ccesar ;  but  in  English  we  must  say,  Caesat  conquered  Pom- 
pey,  nor  can  we  reverse  this  without  reversing  the  meaning. 


Figures  of  Emphasis.  183 

This  freedom  of  change  in  position  gave  some  advantages 
to  the  classical  languages  in  the  way  of  emphasizing  words.  In 
these  there  was  a  certain  order  which  was  the  normal  one ;  and 
when  this  was  varied,  the  word  was  placed  in  an  unusual  posi- 
tion, which  made  it  more  conspicuous,  and,  as  a  consequence, 
more  emphatic. 

The  same  thing  holds  good  to  a  certain  extent  in  modern 
languages,  and  emphasis  is  given  to  a  word  by  placing  it  in  an 
unusual  position. 

§  189.  INVERSION   IN   POETRY. 

.  Inversion  is  more  striking  in  poetry,  for  here  there  is  a  larger 
liberty  in  changing  the  position  of  words.  This  is  one  of  the 
things  that  come  under  the  head  of  poetic  license,  which  affects 
both  the  choice  of  words  and  their  arrangement.  In  poetry 
the  full  powers  of  the  language  may  be  seen  more  conspicuous 
in  every  respect  than  in  prose. 

In  no  poet  can  such  remarkable  examples  of  inversion  be 
found  as  in  Milton.  This  was  in  part  due  to  his  classical  taste, 
which  led  him  often  to  imitate  classical  idioms,  and  in  part  to 
his  exquisite  musical  feeling. 

The  opening  of  Paradise  Lost  affords  an  example  of  this : 

"  Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world  and  all  our  woe, 
With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat, 
Sing,  heavenly  Muse." 

Here  the  natural  order  would  require  that  "  heavenly  Muse" 
should  come  first,  and  then  "  sing  of  man's  first  disobedience." 
As  it  is,  the  subject  of  his  poem  gains  greater  prominence. 

The  same  thing  may  be  seen  equally  well  illustrated  in  the 
opening  lines  of  the  second  book  : 

"  High  on  a  throne  of  royal  state,  which  far 
Outshone  the  wealth  of  Ormus  and  of  Ind, 
Or  where  the  gorgeous  East  with  richest  hand 
Showers  on  her  kings  barbaric  peail  and  gold, 
Satan  exalted  sat." 

In  ordinary  narrative  the  sentence  would  begin  with  the 


1 84  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

subject,  "  Satan  ;"  but  here,  by  this  inversion,  "Satan"  is  intro- 
duced with  immense  pomp  and  splendor. 

"  Him  the  Almighty  Power 
Hurled  headlong,  flaming  down  the  ethereal  heights 
To  bottomless  perdition,  there  to  dwell 
In  adamantine  chains  and  penal  fire, 
Who  durst  defy  the  Omnipotent  to  arms." 

This  is  a  very  remarkable  case  of  inversion,  and  it  will  be 
seen  what  emphasis  is  laid  on  the  word  "him"  by  placing  it 
first  in  the  sentence.  The  word  "me"  in  the  following  pas- 
sage gains  the  same  emphasis : 

"  Me,  though  just  right  and  the  fixed  laws  of  heaven 
Did  first  create  your  leader." 

But  nowhere  can  be  found  an  example  of  more  intense  em- 
phasis arising  from  inversion  than  in  the  following  from  Mac- 
beth: 

"Not  in  the  legions 
Of  horrid  hell  can  come  a  devil  more  damned 
In  ills  to  top  Macbeth." 

Here  the  name  "  Macbeth,"  being  reserved  till  the  last,  comes 
in  with  all  the  force  of  a  climax,  and  with  all  the  emphasis  that 
arises  from  an  unusual  position,  and  the  introduction  of  the 
whole  by  the  negative  particle. 

Poetry  is  full  of  these  inversions,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  fol- 
lowing passages,  which  show  an  arrangement  of  words  of  con- 
stant occurrence : 

"  Aloft  in  godlike  state 
The  royal  hero  sate." — Dryden. 

In  prose  "the  royal  hero"  would  stand  first. 

"  And  longer  had  she  sung,  but  with  a  frown 
Revenge  impatient  rose." — Collins. 

"  Full  many  a  gem  'of  purest  ray  serene. 

The  dark,  un fathomed  caves  of  ocean  bear." — Gray. 

§    190.    INVERSION    IN    PROSE. 

Although  inversion  is  not  carried  out  to  so  great  an  extent 
in  prose,  it  is  nevertheless  of  much  importance.     Many  remark- 


Figures  of  Emphasis.  185 

able  examples  are  to  be  found  in  the  English  Bible,  which  show 
how  emphasis  may  be  produced  in  this  way.  This  is  in  part 
due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  a  translation ;  and  the  order  of  words 
of  the  original  has  in  many  cases  been  preserved. 

"  In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth." 

The  natural  order  would  be— God  created  the  heavens  and 
the  earth  in  the  beginning. 

"  Blessed  is  he  that  cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord." 

Natural  order — He  that  cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord  is 
blessed. 

"Great  and  marvellous  are  thy  works,  Lord  God  Almighty." 

Natural  order — Thy  works  are  great  and  marvellous. 

"  Among  many  nations  there  was  no  king  like  unto  Solomon,  who  was 
beloved  of  God,  and  God  made  him  king  over  all  Israel,  nevertheless  even 
him  did  outlandish  women  cause  to  sin." 

Here  the  emphasis  upon  the  word  "him"  is  of  unusual 
force. 

"  Silver  and  gold  have  I  none,  but  such  as  I  have  give  I  unto  thee." 

Such  inversion  as  this  is  very  unusual  in  prose,  yet  it  is 
quite  in  accordance  with  the  genius  of  the  English  language, 
and  presents  the  statement  with  the  utmost  possible  force. 

Examples  of  a  similar  kind  may  be  found  everywhere  in  Eng- 
lish prose,  and  always  have  the  same  effect. 

"The  man  who  first  saw  that  it  was  possible  to  found  a  European  em- 
pire on  the  ruins  of  the  Mogul  monarchy  was  Dupleix." — Macaulav. 

This  is  far  more  effective  than  if  the  sentence  were  written, 
Dupleix  was  the  first  man  who  saw,  etc. 

"  Then  was  committed  that  great  crime,  memorable  for  its  singular  atroc- 
ity, memorable  for  the  tremendous  retribution  by  which  it  was  followed." 
— Macaulay. 

The  common  order  would  be,  Then  that  great  crime  was 
committed. 

"  Like  the  Puritans,  he  lived  '  as  ever  in  the  great  Taskmaster's  eye.'  Like 
them,  he  kept  his  mind  continually  fixed  on  an  Almighty  Judge  and  an  eternal 


1 86  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

reward-     But  not  the  coolest  sceptic  or  the  most  profane  scoffer  was  more 
perfectly  free  from  the  contagion  of  their  frantic  delusions." — Macaulay. 

Here  the  natural  order  would  be  as  follows :  He  lived  like 
the  Puritans,  etc.  But  the  coolest  sceptic  or  the  most  pro- 
fane scoffer  was  not  more  perfectly  free,  etc.  The  position  of 
the  word  "not"  must  be  regarded  as  peculiarly  emphatic. 

Inversion  is  so  common  in  English  prose  that  it  may  be  said 
to  be  quite  as  much  in  accordance  with  the  genius  of  the  lan- 
guage as  any  other  figure ;  indeed,  in  many  cases  it  may  well 
be  doubted  whether  there  is  any  real  inversion  at  all.  Thus  it 
may  be  quite  as  much  the  natural  order  to  say,  "  Blessed  are 
the  pure  in  heart,"  as  to  say,  "The  pure  in  heart  are  blessed;" 
only  in  this  case  it  becomes  a  species  of  exclamation,  and  as- 
sumes the  order  appropriate  to  that  form  of  statement.  Apart 
from  this  there  is  an  abundant  use  of  this  figure,  and  he  must 
be  indeed  a  dull  writer  who  does  not  frequently  find  occasion 
to  employ  it. 

"The  most  questionable  act  of  his  life  was  the  execution  of  Charles." 
"The  forerunner  of  the  great  restoration  in  our  literature  was  Cowper." 
"  Of  all  conquerors,  the  greatest  was  Alexander." 

In  these  examples  the  subject  is  put  last,  and  is  presented 
with  the  greatest  possible  emphasis.  Sometimes  the  character 
of  a  subject  may  be  emphasized  by  being  placed  in  the  first 
part  of  the  sentence  : 

"  For  magnificence,  for  pathos,  for  vehement  exhortation,  for  subtle  disqui- 
sition, for  every  purpose  of  the  poet,  the  orator,  and  the  divine,  this  homely 
dialect,  the  dialect  of  plain  workingmen,  was  amply  sufficient." — Macaulay. 

A  qualifying  word  is  emphasized ;  as — 

"Up  went  the  flag  to  the  top  of  the  mast" — for  "the  flag  went  up." 
"Away  went  the  horse,  and  after  him  toiled  the  dismounted  rider." 

Any  given  word  may  thus  be  made  to  receive  emphasis  : 

"  Napoleon  could  not  recover  from  this  defeat,  although  he  had  retrieved 
his  fortunes  in  others." 

If  it  were  required  to  arrange  this  sentence  so  as  to  empha- 
size the  word  "  this,"  which  is  very  important  here,  it  could  be 
done  as  follows : 


Figures  of  Emphasis,  187 

"  Although  Napoleon  had  retrieved  his  fortunes  in  other  defeats,  yet  he 
could  not  recover  from  this." 

"  Your  attempts  will  be  in  vain,  although  you  strain  every  nerve." 

"In  vain"  will  be  emphasized  by  being  placed  last;  as — 

"  Although  you  strain  every  nerve,  your  attempts  will  be  in  vain." 
"  You  cannot  escape  ;"  "  escape"  may  be  emphasized  thus  :  "  Escape  you 
cannot." 

§   191.    ANASTROPHE. 

Anastrophe  mean's,  generally,  the  inversion  of  words,  but 
more  particularly  the  inversion  of  words  in  immediate  connec- 
tion; as — 

"  Were  ne'er  prophetic  sounds  so  full  of  woe," — Collins. 
For  "  Prophetic  sounds  were  ne'er." 

"At  length  did  cross  an  albatross."— Coleridge. 

"  Till  clomb  above  the  eastern  bar 
The  horned  moon." — Coleridge. 

*'  When  round  the  lonely  cottage, 
Roars  loud  the  tempest's  din." 

§   192.   SYNCHESIS. 

Synchesis  is  a  kind  of  inversion  where  the  words  are  in  a 
confused  order :  as — 
*'  Tumble  precipitate  ;  down  dashed." 

§   193.   TMESIS. 

Tmesis  has  the  effect  of  inversion.  It  is  the  division  of  a 
compound  word  into  two :  as — 

"On  what  side  soever,"  for  "on  whatsoever  side." 
"To  God  ward,"  for  "toward  God." 

§  194.    HYPERBATON. 

By  this  is  meant  inversion  in  the  order  of  thought.  It 
arises  naturally  from  emotion  or  passion,  and  is  the  language 
of  those  who,  when  laboring  under  great  excitement  of  feeling, 
express  their  ideas  in  a  confused  manner — thrusting  forward 
indiscriminately  those  thoughts  which  are  most  prominent  in 
their  minds.  This  is  explained  by  Longinus  in  a  passage 
which  is  at  once  a  definition  and  an  illustration  ; 

I 


1 88  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

"  For  as  when  men  are  really  impelled  by  anger,  or  fear,  or  indignation, 
or  jealousy,  or  any  other  passion  (for  they  are  numberless  and  cannot  be 
reckoned  up),  they  are  forever  getting  wrong ;  and  when  they  have  proposed 
one  thing  are  constantly  running  off  into  another,  absurdly  obtruding  some 
intermediate  matter ;  and  then  again  coming  round  to  their  original  subject, 
are  ever  and  anon  pulled  back  suddenly  from  conflicting  feelings,  now  this 
way,  now  that,  as  if  the  sport  of  a  shifting  wind  ;  incessantly  chopping  and 
changing  their  expressions,  their  ideas,  and  the  order  of  their  natural  con- 
nection in  all  sorts  of  ways,  to  suit  their  ever-varj'ing  purpose  ;  so  the  best 
writers  endeavor  to  imitate  the  truth  of  nature's  doings  by  means  of  trans- 
positions." 

"  In  Herodotus,"  he  continues,  "  is  a  speech  which  gives  an  example  of 
this  :  *  For  our  aflFairs,*  says  a  speaker,  '  are  balanced  on  a  razor's  edge. 
Men  of  Ionia,  now  is  the  crisis  of  our  fate,  whether  to  be  free  or  slaves — yes, 
runaway  slaves,  the  most  abject  and  degraded ;  now,  then,  if  you  make  up 
your  mind  to  endure  hardness,  you  will  indeed  have  to  encounter  toil  for 
the  present,  but  you  will  be  able  to  vanquish  the  enemy.'  " 

"  The  natural  order,"  Longinus  resumes,  "  was  this  :  *  Men  of  Ionia,  now 
is  the  time  to  submit  to  toil  and  labor,  for  our  affairs  are  balanced  on  a  ra- 
zor's edge.'  But  he  has  transposed  the  salutation,  'Men  of  Ionia;'  for  he 
has  commenced  with  giving  utterance  to  his  fears,  as  if  he  could  not  com- 
mand himself  to  accost  his  hearers  first,  from  his  sense  of  imminent  danger. 
In  the  next  place  he  has  distorted  the  order  of  the  thoughts,  for  before  he 
said  they  must  exert  themselves,  he  first  assigns  the  reason  why  they  should 
do  so,  saying, '  our  affairs  are  balanced  on  a  razor's  edge,'  so  that  his  words 
seem  not  premeditated,  but  forced  from  him." 

The  following  passage  is  from  the  same  author : 

"  Thucydides  is  a  great  master  of  transposition  ;  but  Demosthenes  is 
more  abundant  in  this  than  any  other  writer,  exhibiting  an  appearance  of 
much  earnestness,  nay,  of  uttering  everything  on  the  spur  of  the  moment  by 
means  of  transposition,  and  dragging  his  hearers  along  with  him  into  a  per- 
ilous maze  of  things  seemingly  unconnected.  For  frequently  suspending 
the  thought  with  which  he  set  out,  and  abruptly  interposing  by  way  of 
parenthesis  a  mass  of  matter  apparently  quite  irrelevant,  and  thrust  ih 
quite  incongruously  and  strangely,  he  puts  the  hearer  in  fear  that  he  has 
suffered  the  subject  to  drop  altogether,  and  compels  him  from  earnest  feel- 
ing to  share  the  dangers  of  the  speaker  ;  then  at  length,  towards  the  close, 
he  very  pertinently,  but  unexpectedly,  adds  the  long-sought  link  of  connec- 
tion, and  raises  surprise  and  admiration  still  higher  by  the  mere  daring  and 
imminent  hazard  of  his  transposition." 

The  following  passage  from   Hamlet  afTords  an   admirable 
example  of  this  figure : 

"  But  two  months  dead  ! — nay,  not  so  much,  not  two  :  • 
So  excellent  a  king ;  that  was,  to  this. 


Figures  of  Emphasis.  189 

Hyperion  to  a  satyr :  so  loving  to  my  mother, 

That  he  might  not  beteem  the  winds  of  heaven 

Visit  her  face  too  roughly.     Heaven  and  earth  ! 

Must  I  remember  ?     Why,  she  would  hang  on  him, 

As  if  increase  of  appetite  had  grown 

By  what  it  fed  on  :  and  yet,  within  a  month — 

Let  me  not  think  on't — Frailty,  thy  name  is  woman ! — 

A  little  month,  or  ere  those  shoes  were  old 

With  which  she  followed  my  poor  father's  body, 

Like  Niobe,  all  tears  ; — why  she,  even  she — 

O  heaven  !  a  beast,  that  wants  discourse  of  reason, 

Would  have  mourned  longer — married  with  my  uncle, 

My  father's  brother ;  but  no  more  like  my  father 

Than  I  to  Hercules :  within  a  month, 

Ere  yet  the  salt  of  most  unrighteous  tears 

Had  left  the  flushing  in  her  galled  eyes, 

She  married." 

§   195.    HYSTERON   PROTERON. 

Hysteron  proteron  is  similar  to  hyperbaton,  but  is  more  lim- 
ited in  its  scope,  being  confined  to  a  few  words,  where  the  or- 
der of  thought  is  reversed,  and  that  is  put  first  which  should 
stand  last : 

"Valet  atque  vivit." — TERENCE. 
"  He  is  well  and  alive." 

This  is  sometimes  considered  as  identical  with  anastrophe, 
already  considered. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

FIGURES   OF  EMPHASIS   ARISING   FROM  AN  UNUSUAL 
OR  STRIKING   PRESENTATION. 

§  196.  UNUSUAL   OR   STRIKING   MODES   OF   STATEMENT. 

The  third  class  of  figures  of  emphasis  comprises  those  by 
which  statements  are  made  in  an  unusual  or  striking  manner. 
This  class  is  a  large  one,  including  such  figures  as  exclama- 
tion, interrogation,  elliptical  and  pleonastic  forms,  with  a  few 
others. 


190  Elements  of  EJietoric. 

§  197.   EXCLAMATION. 

Exclamation  is  a  figure  of  very  extended  application.  It  is 
closely  connected  with  the  expression  of  the  feelings,  and 
many  of  the  so-called  figures  of  emotion  are  merely  different 
kinds  of  exclamation.  It  is  also  a  form  of  statement  varied 
from  the  common  order,  so  as  to  avoid  monotony,  or  to  attract 
attention. 

I.  Exclamation  associated  with  emotion.  This  will  be  fur- 
ther considered  under  the  head  of  "The  Emotions,"  and  a  gen- 
eral notice  of  its  chief  applications  will  suffice  for  the  present 
Its  chief  use  is  in  poetry  and  oratory,  which  are  pre-eminently 
the  literature  of  the  feelings. 

•'  O  unexpected  stroke,  worse  than  of  death  !" — Milton. 

"  Me  miserable !  which  way  shall  I  fly 
Infinite  wrath,  and  infinite  despair?" — Milton. 

*•  O  Time,  the  beautifier  of  the  dead  1  "—Byron. 

Personification  and  apostrophe  are  associated  with  exclama- 
tion.    It  is  also  found  in  very  animated  prose. 

"  A  heroic  Wallace  quartered  on  the  scaffold  cannot  hinder  that  his  Scot- 
land become  one  day  part  of  England,  but  he  does  hinder  that  it  become 
on  tyrannous  terms  a  part  of  it.  Fight  on,  thou  brave,  true  heart,  and  falter 
not  through  dark  fortune  and  through  bright" — Carlvle. 

"  Look  there,  O  man  of  woman  bom  !  The  bloom  of  that  fair  face  is 
wasted." — Carlyle. 

•  2.  Exclamation  is  also  used  simply  to  vary  the  style  and  give 
emphasis  to  passages.  This  is  common  in  all  kinds  of  prose 
writing.  It  is  generally  introduced  by  interjections,  "oh," 
"alas,"  and  by  the  words,  "how,"  "  what." 

"  When  I  have  no  more  to  say  to  you,  you  will  like  me  no  longer.  How 
dreadful  is  that  thought !" — Lady  M.  W.  Montagu. 

"  What  folly  it  would  be  to  sacrifice  liberty,  and,  for  the  sake  of  life,  to 
give  up  that  which  alone  makes  life  worth  having !" 

§  198.   SALUTATION. 

A  certain  kind  of  exclamation  is  called  "salutation."  It  is 
often  intermingled  with  apostrophe,  and  is  a  salutatory  address 
to  the  dead  or  absent. 


Figures  of  Emphasis.  191 

"  All  hail  to  thee,  Edmund  Burke,  the  supreme  writer  of  his  century,  tne 
man  of  the  largest  and  finest  understanding  !" — De  Quincey. 

At  Other  times  it  is  simple  exclamation  addressed  to  some 
person  or  thing. 

"  Hail  to  the  chief  who  in  triumph  advances  !" — Scott. 
This  is  addressed  to  the  living  Roderick  Dhu. 

"  O  thou,  that  with  surpassing  glory  crowned  !" — Milton. 
Satan's  address  to  the  sun  is  made  to  a  visible  object. 

§  199.   EPIPHONEMA. 

Another  kind  of  exclamation  is  called  "  epiphonema."  This 
is  a  grave  reflection  consequent  upon  statements  that  have 
preceded. 

"  Ne'er  saw  I,  never  felt  a  calm  so  deep ! 
The  river  glideth  at  his  own  sweet  will ; 
Dear  God !  the  very  houses  seem  asleep ; 

And  all  that  mighty  heart  is  lying  still  I" — WoRDSWORTH. 

§  200.   INTERROGATION. 

Interrogation,  like  exclamation,  may  be  used  both  with  emo- 
tion and  without  it.  On  the  one  hand  it  may  express  the  most 
intense  passion  ;  on  the  other  it  may  be  used  merely  to  vary 
the  form  of  statement,  and  give  animation  to  style.  Interro- 
gation forms  a  sudden  and  abrupt  change  to  ordinary  state- 
ment, and  passages  are  introduced  in  this  way  in  order  that 
they  may  be  presented  with  greater  emphasis ;  for  the  flow  of 
the  narrative  is  thrown  out  of  its  course,  and  the  mind,  which 
may  be  growing  wearied,  suddenly  receives  some  new  stimulus. 

Two  kinds  of  interrogation  are  frequently  noticed : 

1.  Where  an  answer  is  expected. 

2.  Where  no  answer  is  expected.  This  is  called  the  ques- 
tion of  appeal,  and  is  merely  a  statement  thrown  into  the  inter- 
rogative form.  Of  the  two,  the  latter  is  far  more  commonly 
used  for  rhetorical  purposes. 

The  noblest  thoughts,  the  most  sublime  conceptions,  and  the 
most  striking  images  may  be  found  presented  under  this  figure. 
Like  exclamation,  it  is  found  through  all  the  Sacred  Scriptures, 
and  has  no  less  prominent  a  place  in  our  own  literature. 


192  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

"  Who  would  bear  the  whips  and  scorns  of  time. 
The  oppressor's  wrong,  the  proud  man's  contumely  ?" 

— Shakespeare. 
"  Who  would  lose  this  intellectual  being, 
Those  thoughts  that  wander  through  eternity  ?"— Milton. 

"  For  who  to  dumb  forgetful ness  a  prey, 

This  pleasing,  anxious  being  e'er  resigned  ?" — Gray. 

"  What  objects  are  the  fountains 
Of  thy  happy  strain  ; 
What  fields,  or  waves,  or  mountains; 
What  shapes  of  sky  or  plain. 
What  love  of  thine  own  kind,  what  ignorance  of  pain  ?" — Shelley. 

"  Breathes  there  the  man,  with  soul  so  dead, 
Who  never  to  himself  hath  said 
This  is  my  own,  my  native  land?" — ScoTT. 

The  power  of  this  figure  to  present  a  statement  with  strong 
emphasis  may  be  seen  in  the  following  passage  from  the  letters 
of  Junius: 

"  Let  us  consider  you,  then,  as  arrived  at  the  summit  of  worldly  great- 
ness. Let  us  suppose  that  all  your  plans  of  avarice  and  ambition  are  ac- 
complished, and  your  most  sanguine  wishes  gratified,  in  the  fear  as  well  as 
in  the  hatred  of  the  people.  Can  age  itself  forget  that  you  are  now  in  the 
last  act  of  life  ?    Can  gray  hairs  make  folly  venerable  ?" 

It  is  difficult  to  see  how  these  concluding  sentences  could 
be  presented  with  such  a  fierce  and  scornful  emphasis  in  any 
other  way  than  the  sharp  and  direct  personality  which  may 
characterize  the  interrogation. 

The  force  of  interrogation  may  be  seen  by  comparing  sen- 
tences which  exhibit  this  figure  side  by  side  with  plain  state- 
ments : 

"  He  could  not  lose  this  favorable  opportunity  by  waiting  for  reinforce- 
ments." 

"  Was  he  to  lose  this  favorable  opportunity  by  waiting  for  reinforce- 
ments ?" 

"  Life  is  not  the  most  precious  thing ;  it  is  better  to  lose  this  than  to  lose 
honor." 

"  Is  life  the  most  precious  thing  t  Is  it  not  better  to  lose  this  than  to 
lose  honor  ?" 

'•  No  one  would  be  so  infatuated  as  to  accept  in  good  faith  such  a  prom- 
ise." 

"  Who  would  be  so  infatuated  as  to  accept  in  good  faith  such  a  prom- 
ise?" 


Figures  of  Emphasis.  -193 

Many  questions  are  introduced  by  such  formulas  as,  "  Can 
any  one  suppose  ?"  "  Will  it  be  believed  ?"  "  Can  any  one 
doubt?" 

Interrogation  is  very  common  in  oratory,  especially  in  delib- 
erative oratory  where  the  presence  of  an  opponent  or  an  ad- 
verse party  gives  a  personal  flavor  to  the  speeches.  At  the 
same  time  it  is  sufficiently  prevalent  in  demonstrative  and  ju- 
dicial oratory.  Demosthenes  employed  this  figure  to  a  great 
extent.  It  is  one  of  his  characteristics  that  he  seems  to  delight 
in  hurling  a  whole  mass  of  questions  at  the  heads  of  his  oppo- 
nents or  his  auditors.     Thus  : 

"  But  when,  O  my  countrymen,  will  you  begin  to  exert  your  vigor  ?  Do 
you  wait  till  roused  by  some  dire  event,  till  forced  by  necessity?  What, 
then,  are  we  to  think  of  our  present  condition  ?  ...  Or  say,  is  it  your  sole 
ambition  to  wander  through  the  public  places  each  inquiring  of  the  other — 
What  news  ?  Can  anything  be  more  new  than  that  a  man  of  Macedon  should 
conquer  the  Athenians  and  give  laws  to  Greece?  Is  Philip  dead?  No, 
but  he  is  sick.     Pray,  what  is  it  to  you  whether  Philip  is  sick  or  not  ?" 

Cicero's  first  oration  against  Catiline  gives  a  remarkable 
example  of  interrogation  in  its  opening  sentences. 

§  201.   SERMOCINATIO. 

In  oratory  there  is  a  form  of  interrogation  where  the  ques- 
tion is  immediately  followed  by  an  answer.  It  is  a  species  of 
dialogue  with  one's  self,  and  is  called  "sermocinatio." 

*'  Corruption  has  introduced  such  manners  as  have  proved  the  bane  and 
destruction  of  our  country.  Is  a  man  known  to  have  received  foreign  mon- 
ey ?  People  envy  him.  Does  he  own  it  ?  They  laugh.  Is  he  formally 
convicted  ?    They  forgive  him." — Demosthenes. 

"With  what  possible  intent  could  you  have  sent  them?  For  peace? 
But  all  had  it  Well,  then,  for  war  ?  But  you  yourselves  were  desirous  of 
peace." — Demosthenes. 

§  202.   PERCONTATIO  AND    EXPOSITIO. 

Sometimes  the  question  and  answer  are  more  expanded,  in 
which  case  they  are  each  set  down  as  a  separate  figure,  the  one 
being  called  "percontatio"  and  the  other  "expositio." 

Percontatio  is  a  consultation  with  the  audience,  or  seeming 
inquiry,  followed  by  the  statement  of  one's  own  feelings. 

Expositio  is  the  statement  following  percontatio. 


194  Elements  of  Rfutoric. 

Percantatio. — "  What  will  you  say  now  when  the  viceroy  shakes  hands 
with  the  populace,  and  enfeoflFs  himself  to  the  lowest  popularity  ?" 

Expositio. — "  He  should  not  proceed  on  the  principles  of  Punic  faith  or 
of  Parthian  flight  To  retain  the  affections  of  the  public  on  negative  terms 
is  difficult ;  but  to  attach  them  by  injuries,  to  annex  the  delusion  of  the  pub- 
lic to  his  person,  and  the  plunder  of  the  country  to  his  family,  is  a  monster 
in  the  history  bf  ambition." — Grattan. 

This  is  not  infrequent  in  ordinary  prose  composition. 

•'  But  was  there  nobody  among  the  ninety  thousand  prisoners  of  Jerusa- 
lem who  could  have  spoken  to  parts  of  this  man's  life  ?  Doubtless  there 
were,  but  to  what  purpose  for  people  in  their  situation  to  come  forward  ? 
One  and  all,  positively  without  a  solitary  exception,  they  were  themselves 
captives — slaves,  condemned  and  despairing." — De  Quincky. 

§  203.   RESPONSIO   SIBI    IPSI. 

Another  form  is  sometimes  distinguished  as  "  responsio  sibi 
ipsi,"  or  answer  to  one's  own  question : 

"Is  any  man  fallen  into  disgrace?  Charity  doth  hold  down  its  head, 
abashed  and  out  of  countenance,  partaking  of  his  shame.  Is  any  man  dis- 
appointed of  his  hopes  or  endeavors  ?  Charity  crieth  out,  Alas  !  as  if  it  were 
itself  defeated.  Is  any  man  afflicted  with  pain  or  sickness  ?  Charity  look- 
cth  sadly,  it  sigheth,  it  groaneth,  it  fainteth,  and  languisheth  with  him.  Is 
any  man  pinched  with  hard  want  ?  Charity,  if  it  cannot  succor,  will  con- 
dole. Doth  ill  news  arrive  ?  Charity  doth  hear  it  with  an  unfiling  ear 
and  a  sad  heart,  although  not  particularly  concerned  in  it" — Barrow. 

§  204.    PARENTHETICAL    FIGURES. 

Parenthetical  figures  include  certain  forms  of  expression  in 
which  the  parenthesis  is  used. 

The  parenthesis  has  already  been  noticed  in  relation  to  per- 
spicuity, and  may  now  receive  further  attention  from  another 
point  of  view. 

§  205.    COMMENTtm. 

One  form  of  the  parenthesis  is  sometimes  considered  as  a 
separate  figure  under  the  name  of  "  commentum,"  which  may 
be  defined  as  a  passing  comment,  or  reflection,  on  what  has 
been  said. 

Horace  Walpole,  speaking  of  Dr.  Johnson,  says  : 

"  Some  of  his  own  works  show  that  he  had  at  times  strong  excellent  com- 
mon-sense ;  and  that  he  had  the  virtue  of  charity  to  a  high  degree  is  indu- 
bitable ;  but  his  friends  (of  whom  he  made  woful  choice)  have  taken  care 
to  let  the  world  know  that  in  behavior  he  was  an  ill-natured  bear,  and  in 


Figures  of  Emphasis.  195 

opinions  as  senseless  a  bigot  as  an  old  washerwoman — a  brave  composition 
for  a  philosopher !" 

This  /parenthetical  remark  upon  Dr.  Johnson's  friends  serves 
to  give  additional  emphasis  to  the  report  which  they  made  of 
him. 

"  Bom  to  inherit  the  most  illustrious  monarchy  in  the  world,  and  united 
at  an  early  period  to  the  object  of  her  choice,  whose  virtues  amply  justified 
her  preference,  she  enjoyed  (what  is  not  always  the  privilege  of  that  rank) 
the  highest  connubial  felicity." — Robert  Hall. 

This  passing  comment  upon  the  ordinary  fate  of  exalted  rank 
sets  forth  in  a  striking  manner  the  unusual  good  fortune  of  the 
Princess  Charlotte. 

§  206.    APPOSITIO   AND    EXPLANATIO. 

Under  this  head  may  be  classed  another  figure,  which  con- 
sists in  giving  emphasis  to  any  statement  by  placing  words  after 
it  of  an  explanatory  character.  This  is  called  "  appositio," 
and  also  "  explanatio." 

"  Music,  painting,  poetry — the  aesthetic  arts — are  the  results  of  genius 
and  industry." 

.The  explanatory  parenthesis  renders  this  sentence  clearer 
and  more  forcible. 

*'  Ships  by  thousands  lay  below, 
And  men  in  nations — all  were  his." 

The  words  "all  were  his"  serve  to  enlarge  our  conception 
of  the  power  of  Xerxes. 

"  Above  all,  to  an  Irishman — to  that  Arthur  Wellesley  who,  in  the  em- 
phatic words  of  the  learned  gentleman  [Mr.  Sheil],  *  eclipsed  his  military  vic- 
tories by  the  splendor  of  his  civil  triumphs,'  to  him  was  committed  the  great 
and  glorious  task  of  effecting  the  deliverance  of  the  world." — Sir  Robert 
Peel. 

Here  the  statement  that  a  great  work  was  performed  by  an 
Irishman  receives  additional  emphasis  by  the  mention  of  his 
name  and  actions. 

This  figure  is  equally  striking  in  the  following  passage  : 

"  Let  us  not  deceive  ourselves,  sir.  These  are  the  implements  of  war 
and  subjugation  —  the  last  arguments  to  which  kings  resort." — Patrick 
Henry. 

I  2 


196  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

With  the  parenthetical  figures  digression  is  also  classed,  but 
that  has  already  been  sufficiently  considered  under  the  head  of 
perspicuity. 

§   207.    ELLIPTICAL    FIGURES. 

Elliptical  figures  include  all  those  forms  of  expression  in 
which  words  are  omitted  or  suppressed. 

§  208.    ELLIPSE. 

By  ellipse  is  meant  the  omission  of  words  : 

"  And  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  unless  wariness  be  used,  as  good  almost 
kill  a  man  as  kill  a  good  book." — Milton. 

If  the  ellipse  were  removed  by  the  restoration  of  the  words 
omitted,  the  sentence  would  assume  some  such  form  as  this : 

"  And  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  unless  wariness  be  used,  evil  may  result^ 
for  you  might  as  well  almost  kill  a  man  as  kill  a  good  book." 

Ellipse,  when  not  carried  too  far,  tends  to  conciseness  and 
energy  of  expression,  and  emphasizes  statements  by  presenting 
them  in  a  compact  form  or  in  an  unusual  manner.  Carlyle 
deals  frequently  in  this  figure  : 

•'  The  man  is  not  of  godlike  physiognomy  any  more  than  of  imposing 
stature  or  costume — close  shut  mouth  with  thin  lips,  prominent  jaws  aftd 
nose,  receding  brow,  by  no  means  of  Olympian  height ;  head,  however,  is  of 
long  form,  and  has  superlatively  gray  eyes  in  it  Not  what  is  called  a  beau- 
tiful man,  nor  yet  by  any  means  a  happy." 

§  209.   ZEUGMA. 

Zeugma  is  a  figure  in  which,  by  the  omission  of  one  word, 
another  is  joined  to  words  with  which  it  has  properly  no  con- 
nection : 

•'  They  wear  a  dress  like  that  of  the  Scythians,  but  a  language  peculiar  to 
themselves." 

By  the  omission  of  the  word  "speak,"  the  word  "wear"  is 
here  used  in  connection  with  "language." 

§   210.    SYNESIS. 

Synesis  is  an  adaptation  of  the  construction  to  the  sense  of 
words  rather  than  to  their  grammatical  character: 

"  My  paternal  home  was  made  desolate,  and  he  himself  was  sacrificed." 


Figures  of  Emphasis.  197 

It  is  plain  that  "he  himself"  refers  to  father  as  an  ante- 
cedent; that  word,  however,  has  not  been  expressed,  but  is 
implied  in  the  word  paternal. 

§   211.    ANACOLUTHON. 

Anacoluthon  is  a  disagreement  in  construction  between  the 
latter  and  the  former  part  of  a  sentence.  The  proposition  is 
left  unfinished,  and  something  else  is  introduced  to  complete 
the  sentence.  The  emphatic  force  of  this  figure  arises  from 
its  suggestion  of  emotion  on  the  part  of  the  speaker : 

"  If  thou  be'st  he — but  O,  how  fallen,  how  changed 
From  him  who  in  the  happy  realms  of  light. 
Clothed  with  transcendent  brightness,  didst  outshine 
Myriads,  though  bright !" 

Here  the  completion  of  the  sentence  is  prevented  by  the  suf- 
fering of  the  speaker.  The  same  thing  is  seen  in  the  follow- 
ing lines:  .,,  ^      ,        .     ^ 

°  "Into  what  pit  thou  seest. 

From  what  height  fallen — so  much  the  stronger  proved 
He  with  his  thunder;  and  till  then  who  knew 
The  force  of  those  dire  arms  ?" 

**  I  perish  by  this  people  which  I  made, 
Though  Merlin  sware  that  I  should  come  again 
To  rule  once  more — but  let  what  will  be,  be. 
I  am  so  deeply  smitten  through  the  helm 
That  without  help  I  cannot  last  till  mom." — Tennyson. 

••  All  study  is  not  reading,  any  more  than  all  reading  is  study.  By  study  I 
mean — but  let  one  of  the  noblest  geniuses  and  hardest  students  of  any  age 
define  it  for  me.  *  Study,'  says  Cicero,  *is  the  persistent  and  intense  occu- 
pation of  the  mind,  directed  with  a  strong  effort  of  the  will  to  any  subject'  " 
— Edward  Evereit. 

"They  are  not  uncivil  to  him,  but  they  are  peremptory  to  the  extent 
of— Rotch  may  shudder  to  think  what." — Carlyle. 

§  212.    APOSIOPESIS. 
Aposiopesis  is  very  similar  to  the  last.     It  is  a  sudden  pause 
in  the  course  of  a  sentence  by  which  the  conclusion  is  left  un- 
expressed : 

"For  there  I  picked  up  on  the  heather, 
And  there  I  put  within  my  breast, 
A  moulted  feather,  an  eagle's  feather — 
Well — I  forget  the  rest." — Browning. 


198  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Although  the  sentence  is  unfinished,  yet  the  unexpressed 
words  are  implied,  and  with  deep  significance.  In  the  follow- 
ing passage  the  effect  of  this  figure  is  very  striking : 

"  The  blood  and  spirit  of  Le  Fevre,  which  were  waxing  cold  and  slow 
within  him,  and  were  retreating  to  their  last  citadel — the  heart — rallied  back ; 
the  film  forsook  his  eyes  for  a  moment ;  he  looked  up  wistfully  in  my  Uncle 
Toby's  face,  then  cast  a  look  upon  his  boy  ;  and  that  ligament,  fine  as  it  was, 
was  never  broken.  Nature  instantly  ebbed  again  ;  the  film  returned  to  its 
place  ;  the  pulse  fluttered — stopped — went  on — throbbed — stopped  again 
— moved — stopped —    Shall  I  go  on?    No." — Sterne. 

§  2X3.    EPANORTHOSIS. 

Another  very  similar  figure  is  found  in  epanorthosis.  Here 
a  statement  is  retracted  in  order  that  something  stronger  may 
be  substituted : 

"Well,  we  shall  jneld  Spain,  and  then  you  will  pass  into  Africa.  Will 
pass,  did  I  say  ?  This  very  year  they  ordered  one  of  their  consuls  into 
Africa,  the  other  into  Spain." — Hannibal,  from  "  Livy." 

"  Rejoice,  my  friends,  the  tyrant  dies  this  day.  This  day,  do  I  say  ?  This 
very  moment  in  which  I  kept  silence  he  suffered  for  his  crime." — Apollo- 
Nius  OF  Tyana. 

"  The  burden  of  thought  from  having  given  the  chief  value  to  the  vellum, 
has  now  becoipe  the  chief  obstacle  to  its  value — nay,  has  totally  extinguish- 
ed its  value." — De  Quincev. 

In  these  passages  the  first  statement  is  felt  to  be  inade- 
quate, and  by  being  retracted  it  causes  the  strongest  possible 
emphasis  to  be  placed  upon  that  which  is  substituted  for  it. 

§   214.    INTERRUPTIO. 

Another  figure  of  the  same  kind  is  found  in  interruptio, 
where  a  speaker  interrupts  himself  in  the  course  of  his  thought 
and  turns  away  to  something  else.  But,  as  in  the  preceding 
cases,  the  unuttered  words  are  left  to  the  imagination,  and 
thereby  gain  a  greater  force  : 

"  Spite  of  the  weak  heart  so  have  I 
Lived  ever,  and  so  fain  would  die, 
Living  and  dying  thee  before, 
But  if  thou  leavest  me — 

Less  or  more 
I  suppose  that  I  had  spoken  thus 
When — have  mercy.  Lord,  on  us  ! — 
The  whole  face  turned  upon  me  full." 

— Robert  Browning. 


Figures  of  Emphasis.  159 

In  the  preceding  lines  the  effect  of  this  figure  is  to  give 
greater  stress  both  to  that  which  precedes  the  interruption 
and  that  which  follows  it. 

**  Where  in  the  Iliad  shall  we  find  simplicity  and  pathos  which  shall  vie 
with  the  narrative  of  Moses ;  or  maxims  of  conduct  to  equal  the  Proverbs 
of  Solomon  ;  or  sublimity  which  does  not  fade  away  before  the  conceptions 
of  Job,  or  David,  or  Isaiah,  or  St.  John?  But  I  cannot  pursue  this  com- 
parison. I  feel  that  it  is  doing  wrong  to  the  mind  which  dictated  the  Iliad, 
and  to  the  other  mighty  intellects  on  whom  the  light  of  the  holy  oracles 
never  shined." — Wayland. 

By  thus  interrupting  himself,  the  writer  has  in  this  case  made 
his  comparison  more  striking. 

§  215.    SUPPRESSIO. 

In  this  figure  the  anticipated  conclusion  of  a  sentence  is 
suppressed,  and  something  else  is  substituted : 

'*  Julius  Caesar  had  his  Brutus ;  Charles  the  First  had  his  Cromwell ;  and 
George  the  Third— may  profit  by  their  example."— Patrick  Henry. 

In  this  sentence  there  is  a  deep  significance  which  conveys 
the  strongest  conceivable  emphasis. 

§  216.   ASYNDETON. 

Asyndeton  is  the  omission  of  conjunctions.  It  produces 
emphasis  by  introducing  circumstances  in  an  unusual  manner, 
and  by  the  exciting  effect  of  rapid  utterance. 

The  best  examples  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment : 

"  In  all  things  approving  ourselves  as  the  ministers  of  God,  in  much  pa- 
tience, in  afflictions,  in  necessities,  in  distresses,  in  stripes,  in  imprisonments, 
in  tumults,  in  labors,  in  watchings,  in  fastings  ;  by  pureness,  by  knowledge, 
by  long-suffering,  by  kindness,  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  by  love  unfeigned,  by  the 
word  of  truth,  by  the  power  of  God,  by  the  armor  of  righteousness  on  the 
right  hand  and  on  the  left,  by  honor  and  dishonor,  by  evil  report  and  good 
report." — St.  Paul. 

The  omission  of  conjunctions  makes  this  construction  un- 
usual, and  thus  gives  emphasis  to  the  different  topics  which  are 
enumerated.  Another  example  of  the  same  kind  is  seen  in 
the  following  passage : 

"  Be  ye  kindly  affectionate  one  to  another,  with  brotherly  love,  in  honor 


200  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

preferring  one  another,  not  slothful  in  business,  fervent  in  spirit,  serving  the 
Lord,  rejoicing  in  hope,  patient  in  tribulation,  continuing  instant  in  prayer, 
distributing  to  the  necessities  of  the  saints,  given  to  hospitality." — St.  Paul. 

While  the  omission  of  conjunctions  attracts  attention  from 
the  fact  that  such  a  construction  is  unusual,  the  reader  will 
also  observe  how  much  energy  and  animation  is  produced  by 
this  figure.  The  emphasis  caused  by  asyndeton  may  be  at- 
tributed, first,  to  its  striking  character,  and,  secondly,  to  its 
vivacity. 

§  217.    PLEONASTIC    FIGURES. 

Pleonastic  figures  include  all  forms  of  expression  in  which 
words  are  multiplied  for  the  sake  of  emphasis. 

§  218.    PLEONASM. 

By  pleonasm  is  meant  the  employment  of  more  words  than 
usual,  or  of  redundant  words.  When  properly  employed  it  is 
productive  of  a  high  degree  of  emphasis  : 

"The  Lord  he  is  God." 

Here  the  word  "he"  is  emphasized,  and  indicates  more 
strikingly  the  antecedent  "  Lord." 

*'  Thy  rod  and  thy  staff  they  comfort  me." 

The  emphasis  placed  on  the  word  "they"  serves  to  call 
greater  attention  to  the  antecedents. 

§  219.    ANALEPSIS. 

Analepsis  is  another  name  for  pleonasm,  as  above  defined, 
being  a  grammatical  redundancy  employed  for  rhetorical  em- 
phasis : 

"  Health,  virtue,  industry — these  are  the  elements  of  happiness." 

"The  armaments  that  thunder-strike  the  walls 
Of  rock-built  cities,  bidding  nations  quake. 
And  monarchs  tremble  in  their  capitals — 


These  are  thy  toys.*'— Byron. 

In  these  examples  different  things  are  mentioned  individual- 
ly, and  then  by  means  of  this  figure  are  combined  with  greater 
emphasis  in  one  conception. 


Figures  of  Emphasis.  20I 

§  220.    POLYSYNDETON. 

Another  form  of  pleonastic  figures  is  found  when  conjunctions 
are  used  to  an  unusual  degree.     This  is  called  polysyndeton. 

This  figure,  like  asyndeton,  is  found  best  exemplified  in  pas- 
sages in  the  New  Testament : 

"  For  I  am  persuaded  that  neither  death,  nor  life,  nor  angels,  nor  princi- 
palities, nor  powers,  nor  things  present,  nor  things  to  come,  nor  height,  nor 
depth,  nor  any  other  creature  shall  be  able  to  separate  us  from  the  love  of 
God,  which  is  in  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord." — St.  Paul. 

Here  the  conjunctions  are  multiplied  to  an  unusual  degree, 
and  therefore  the  topics  mentioned  receive  the  greater  atten- 
tion. Each  one  is  also  presented  before  the  mind  with  some 
degree  of  formality,  so  that  the  emphasis  must  be  placed  upon 
each  word.     This  is  equally  visible  in  the  following  passage  : 

"That  ye  being  rooted  and  grounded  in  the  faith,  may  be  able  to  com- 
prehend with  all  saints  what  is  the  breadth,  and  length,  and  depth,  and 
height,  and  to  know  the  love  of  God  that  passeth  knowledge." — St.  Paul. 

§   221.    ASYNDETON    AND    POLYSYNDETON   CONTRASTED. 

Asyndeton  and  polysyndeton  may  sometimes  be  found  illus- 
trated in  the  same  passage :  a» — 

"So  eagerly  the  fiend 
O'er  bog  or  steep,  through  strait,  rough,  dense,  or  rare. 
With  head,  hands,  wings,  or  feet,  pursues  his  way. 
And  swims,  or  sinks,  or  wades,  or  creeps,  or  flies." — Milton. 

Here  the  emphasis  arising  from  asyndeton  is  due  to  its  en- 
ergy and  animation,  while  that  which  arises  from  polysyndeton 
is  due  to  its  gravity  and  formality. 

These  two  figures  are  also  illustrated  in  the  following  pas- 
sage : 

"  Dining  one  day,  at  an  alderman's  in  the  city,  Peter  observed  him  ex- 
patiating after  the  manner  of  his  brethren  on  the  praises  of  his  sirloin  of 
beef.  '  Beef,'  said  the  sage  magistrate,  *  is  the  king  of  meat.  Beef  compre- 
hends in  it  the  quintessence  of  partridge,  and  quail,  and  venison,  and  pheas- 
ant, and  plum-pudding,  and  custard.'  ...  *  Bread,'  said  he,  *  dear  brothers, 
is  the  staff  of  life,  in  which  bread  is  contained  inclusive  the  quintessence  of 
beef,  mutton,  veal,  venison,  partridges,  plum-pudding,  and  custard  ' " — Swift. 


202  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  first  portion  of  the  above  passage  exhibits  polysyndeton, 
and  has  a  slow,  grave  movement,  while  the  latter  part,  which 
consists  of  asyndeton,  is  marked  by  briskness  and  animation. 

Asyndeton  and  polysyndeton,  though  differing  in  this  way, 
contribute  each  to  emphasis. 

Asyndeton  gives  emphasis  by  introducing  circumstances  in 
a  rapid  and  energetic  manner. 

Polysyndeton  gives  emphasis  by  introducing  circumstances 
in  a  slow  and  formal  manner. 

Of  the  two,  the  emphasis  given  by  polysjmdeton  is  the 
greater. 

Polysyndeton  has  the  greater  gravity  and  solemnity;  asyn- 
deton the  higher  animation. 

§  222.    PAROEMIAC    FIGURES. 

Paroemiac  figures  include  all  proverbs,  apophthegms,  max- 
ims, sayings,  "  saws,"  and  the  like. 

§  223.    PROVERB. 

A  proverb  is  the  utterance  of  a  truth,  derived  from  general 
experience,  in  a  concise  and  striking  form. 

Lord  John  Russell  defines  it  as  "the  wit  of  one  and  the  wis- 
dom of  many." 

A  proverb  must  be  brief;  the  language  must  be  simple ;  and 
it  must  also  have  some  other  peculiarity  in  order  to  catch  the 
attention,  be  readily  committed  to  memory,  and  long  retained. 
This  is  sometimes  done  by  alliteration :  as — 

"All  is  not  gold  that  glitters." 
•'  Penny  wise,  pound  foolish." 

Sometimes  rhyme  is  employed :  as — 

"  Many  a  slip  'twixt  cup  and  lip." 
"  To-day  be  mine,  to-morrow  thine." 

Antithesis  is  used  very  extensively : 

"Out  of  sight,  out  of  mind." 

"  Nothing  venture,  nothing  have." 

Proverbs  are  constantly  introduced  into  literature. 

"  For  the  ages  after  Alexander,  it  is  certain  that  Greece  proper  was  so 
much  broken  in  spirit  by  the  loss  of  her  autonomy,  dating  from  that  era,  as 


Figures  of  Emphasis.  '      203 

never  again  to  have  rallied  sufficiently  to  produce  a  single  man  of  genius 
— not  one  solitary  writer  who  acted  as  a  power  upon  the  national  mind. 
Callimachus  was  nobody,  and  not  decidedly  Grecian.  Theocritus,  a  man 
of  real  genius  in  a  limited  way,  is  a  Grecian  in  that  sense  only  according  to 
which  an  Anglo-American  is  an  Englishman.  Besides,  one  swallow  does 
not  make  a  summer."— De  Quincey. 

The  proverb  introduced  at  the  close  of  this  passage  serves 
to  give  emphasis  to  the  main  proposition. 

r 

§  224.    APOPHTHEGM. 

The  apophthegm  is  a  short,  pithy  sentence  or  maxim,  and 
it  contributes  to  emphasis  by  its  conciseness  and  energy.  A 
large  proportion  of  those  passages  which  are  widely  known 
and  quoted  are  of  this  description.  Among  English  writers 
the  following  abound  most  in  this: — Poets— Shakespeare,  Mil- 
ton, Pope ; — Prose  writers — Bacon,  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  Emer- 
son. Among  writers  of  the  present  day,  George  Eliot  employs 
this  figure  very  extensively.    The  following  are  examples : 

"  We  are  such  stuff 
As  dreams  are  made  on ;  and  our  little  life 
Is  rounded  by  a  sleep." — Shakespeare. 

"To  be  weak  is  miserable, 
Doing  or  suffering." — Milton. 

"A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing." — Pope. 

"  A  crowd  is  not  company ;  and  faces  are  but  a  gallery  of  pictures  ;  and 
talk  but  a  tinkling  cymbal,  when  there  is  no  love." — Bacon. 

"  Many  have  ruled  well  who  could  not  perhaps  define  a  commonwealth ; 
and  they  who  understand  not  the  globe  of  the  earth  command  a  great  part 
of  it.  When  natural  logic  prevails  not,  artificial  too  often  faileth.  When 
nature  fills  the  sails,  the  vessel  goes  smoothly  on ;  and  when  judgment  is 
the  pilot,  the  insurance  need  not  be  high.  Wlien  industry  builds  upon  nat- 
ure, we  may  expect  pyramids  ;  when  that  foundation  is  wanting,  the  struct- 
ure must  be  low." — Sir  Thomas  Browne. 

§  225.    EPIGRAM. 

The  epigram  may  also  be  named  among  those  figures  which 
contribute  to  emphasis  by  making  statements  in  an  unusual  or 
striking  manner;  but  other  qualities  belong  to  it  which  form 
its  chief  characteristics,  and  it  will  receive  full  consideration 
in  connection  with  the  subject  of  the  ridiculous. 


204  Elements  of  EJietaric, 


CHAPTER   X. 

ENERGY. 
§  226.   DEFINITION   OF    ENERGY. 

The  word  energy  is  used  by  Dr.  Whately  in  a  very  comprehen- 
sive sense,  namely,  as  expressive  of  that  vital  element  in  style 
which  is  here  called  persuasiveness.  Such  an  extension  of  its 
meaning  is,  however,  liable  to  objection ;  first,  because  it  has  a 
definite  signification  of  its  own  ;  and,  secondly,  because  there 
are  certain  qualities  belonging  to  this  present  division  of  style 
which  cannot  be  classified  under  such  a  head.  This  word  is 
generally  explained  by  such  terms  as  "  force,"  "  vigor,"  or 
"  strength,"  and  energy  in  style  may,  therefore,  be  defined  as 
strength  of  expression. 

A  general  example  of  this  quality  may  be  found  in  the  fol- 
lowing passage  from  Emerson  : 

"  A  foolish  consistency  is  the  hol^oblin  of  little  minds,  adored  by  little 
statesmen  and  philosophers  and  divines.  With  consistency  a  great  soul  has 
simply  nothing  to  do.  He  may  as  well  concern  himself  with  his  shadow  on 
the  wall.  Out  upon  your  guarded  lips.  Sew  them  up  with  packthread — 
do.  Else,  if  you  would  be  a  man,  speak  what  you  think  to-day  in  words  as 
hard  as  cannon-balls,  and  to-morrow  speak  what  to-morrow  thinks,  in  words 
as  hard  again — though  it  contradict  everything  you  said  to-day.  '  Ah,  then,' 
exclaim  the  aged  ladies,  'you  shall  be  sure  to  be  misunderstood.'  Misun- 
derstood !     It  is  a  right  fool's  word." 

§  227.  SIMPLICITY   AS    TENDING  TO    ENERGY. 

The  first  requisite  of  energy  is  simplicity. 

The  strongest  words  are  often  the  simplest :  Thus,  "  die  "  is 
stronger  than  "expire,"  "live"  than  "exist,"  "rot"  than  "de- 
cay." Shakespeare  says,  in  a  passage  of  memorable  force,  "  to 
lie  in  cold  obstruction  and  to  rot;''  and  Byron  expresses  vehe- 
ment scorn  by  the  use  of  the  same  word :  "  Such  clay  as  rots 
into  the  souls  of  those  whom  I  survey."  Pope  caps  a  climax 
of  contempt  by  means  of  the  same  word  : 


Energy.  205 

"  Fixed  like  a  plant  on  his  peculiar  spot, 
To  draw  nutrition,  propagate,  and  rot^ 

Simple  words  are  so  clear  and  so  familiar  that  their  meaning 
is  unmistakable  ;  their  force  also  cannot  be  evaded  ;  and  when 
properly  directed  they  strike  home  with  resistless  effect. 

"  A  broken  complexion,"  says  Emerson,  "  a  swinish  look,  all 
blab."  No  other  words  can  have  the  force  of  "swinish"  and 
"  blab."  It  is  a  common  saying  that  when  a  man  feels  strongly 
he  expresses  himself  in  "plain  Saxon,"  which  may  be  accepted 
as  the  testimony  of  the  common  mind  to  the  superior  energy 
of  simple  words.  It  is  surprising  how  many  of  Shakespeare's 
most  vigorous  lines  are  marked  by  the  presence  of  some  sim- 
ple word  which  takes  the  chief  emphasis.  The  following  will 
explain  what  is  meant : 

"  Aye,  there's  the  ruby 

"  O  my  offence  is  rank^  it  smells  to  heaven !" 

**  Enterprises  of  great  pith  and  monrjent." 

The  force  of  simple  speech  is  seen  in  proverbs  and  old 
"saws."  It  is  also  seen  in  the  sayings  of  great  men,  and  es- 
pecially in  the  words  attributed  to  that  most  energetic  of  states- 
men, Bismarck,  who  flings  his  words  at  the  world  with  a  sim- 
plicity and  a  directness  that  is  only  equalled  by  his  cynicism. 
"  Blood  and  iron  "  is  his  policy.  "  Let  Paris  fry  in  her  own 
fat"  was  his  well-known  remark  when  that  city  was  encircled 
by  its  besiegers.  Artificial  words  are  best  for  innuendo,  but 
simple  words  for  direct  and  vigorous  statement. 

Such  vigorous  expressions  abound  in  the  speeches  of  Burke 
and  in  the  writings  of  De  Quincey,  two  authors  whose  style 
exhibits  beyond  all  others  the  extremes  of  most  elaborate  splen- 
dor and  homely  simplicity;  who  were  equally  at  home  amid 
the  pomps  and  sounding  harmonies  of  rhythmical  periods,  or 
the  plain  and  vigorous  phraseology  of  the  most  common  and 
familiar  speech. 

The  following  examples  are  from  Burke  : 

*'  Of  these  two  propositions  I  shall  give  such  damaging  proof  that,  how- 
ever the  contrary  may  be  whispered  in  circles  or  bawled  in  the  newspapers, 
they  never  more  will  dare  to  raise  their  voices  in  this  house." 

"  But  still  it  sticks  in  their  throats." 

"  They  wait  until  Camot  shall  have  snorted  away  the  fumes  of  the  indi- 
gested blood  of  his  sovereign." 


2o6  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

"All  this  U  mighty  well." 

"  We  have  not  been  drawn  and  trussed  in  order  that  we  may  be  filled, 
like  stuffed  birds  in  a  museum,  with  chaff  and  rags,  and  paltry  blurred  shreds 
of  paper  about  the  rights  of  man.  .  .  .  We  have  real  hearts  of  flesh  and 
blood  beating  in  our  bosoms." 

§  228.  CONCISENESS  AS   TENDING   TO    ENERGY. 

Conciseness  is  another  requisite  to  energy.  The  intimate 
connection  between  these  two  qualities  is  admirably  illustrated 
in  the  case  of  the  Spartans,  who  cherished  the  habit  of  using 
as  few  words  as  possible,  yet  of  making  those  words  pregnant 
with  meaning.  Hence  arose  the  terms  "  Spartan  brevity," 
"  laconic  speech,"  "  a  laconic  saying,"  which  have  always  been 
synonymous  with  energetic  brevity.  This  quality  is  exemplified 
in  the  pages  of  Thucydides,  who  never  uses  a  superfluous  word, 
and  who  was  thus  able  to  make  his  work  what  he  desired  it  to 
be — in  his  own  condensed  statement,  a  *,T^/ia  iq  at  1 — an  everlast- 
ing possession.  The  style  of  Tacitus  is  of  the  same  kind,  but 
more  highly  elaborated.  Many  of  his  sentences  have  the 
brevity  and  weight  of  maxims  : 

/'They  make  a  solitude,  and  call  it  peace." 

•*  We  should  have  lost  our  memory  also  with  our  voice,  if  it  had  been 
possible  as  well  to  forget  as  to  keep  silent" 

"To  woman  it  is  given  to  weep,  to  man  to  remember." 

No  author,  however,  has  surpassed  Dante  in  this  respect. 
His  great  poem  is  a  storehouse  of  quotations ;  and  he  himself 
sought  diligently  to  attain  to  the  most  pregnant  brevity  of 
speech,  for  he  more  than  once  refers  to  it  in  a  pointed  man- 
ner : 

"  There  is  no  greater  pain,"  he  says,  "  than  in  sorrow  to  recall  a  happy 
time." 

Tennyson  has  reproduced  this  : 

"  A  sorrow*s  crown  of  sorrow  is  remembering  happier  days." 

At  the  end  of  the  episode  of  Francesca  da  Rimini  is  the 

"  On  that  day  we  read  in  it  no  farther." 

Here  by  metalepsis  is  the  implied  statement  of  their  death. 

"  I  made  a  gibbet  for  myself  with  my  own  dwelling." 


Energy.  207 

The  speaker  in  the  mystic  wood  of  self-murderers  here  sums 
up,  together  with  his  own  suicide,  the  utter  ruin  of  his  family. 

"  He  listens  well  who  marks  the  saying." 

"  It  is  good  to  know  of  some ;  of  others  it  is  well  to  be  silent" 

These  lines  explain  themselves. 

The  stern  judgment  of  an  indignant  patriot  is  passed  upon 
Pope  Celestine  V.  in  the  famous  line  : 

"Chi  fece  per  viltate  il  gran  rifiuto." 

"  Who  made  through  cowardice  the  grand  refusal." 

Allusion  is  made  to  his  pusillanimity  in  refusing  to  retain 
the  office  of  pope  in  a  time  of  difficulty.  In  equally  famous 
lines  he  passes  his  judgment  upon  those  who  have  lived  for 
themselves,  were  neither  good  nor  bad,  and  therefore  have  no 
place  either  in  heaven  or  hell : 

"  Misericordia  e  Giustizia  gli  sdegna ; 
Non  ragioniam  di  lor^ma  guarda  e  passa." 

"  Mercy  and  justice  both  alike  disdain  them ; 
Take  no  account  of  them,  but  look  and  pass." 

§  229.   RETRENCHMENT   OF  SUPERFLUOUS  WORDS  AND  PHRASES. 

Where  the  aim  is  not  merely  perspicuity,  but  also  an  ener- 
getic conciseness,  it  is  necessary  to  subject  the  style  to  close 
restraint,  and  divest  it  of  all  words  or  phrases  that  are  super- 
fluous. Where  these  are  retained,  the  language  may,  indeed, 
be  clear,  but  it  is  apt  to  be  weak  and  ineffective.  Each  word 
should  add  something  in  itself;  it  should  be  actually  need- 
ed, or  else  it  is  better  elsewhere.  "  Obstat,"  says  Quintilian, 
"quidquid  non  adjuvat." 

The  following  passages  are  perfectly  clear,  but  may  be  made 
more  concise : 

"Being  content  with  deserving  a  triumph,  he  refused  the  honor  of  one." 
"  Being  "  may  be  omitted. 

"  There  is  nothing  which  is  more  beneficial  to  a  state  than  a  healthy  and 
vigilant  public  spirit." 

"  There  is  "  and  "  which  "  may  be  omitted. 


2o8  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

"  After  having  attempted  it  three  times,  he  found  the  task  an  impossible 
one,  and  so  he  concluded  to  desist" 

Omit  "after,"  "so  he." 

"  The  king,  finding  that  the  Parliament  was  as  troublesome  as  ever,  de- 
termined to  dissolve  it." 

Omit  "that,"  "was." 

"When  he  was  unfortunate,  he  was  humble  enough;  but  when  he  was 
prosperous  he  became  the  vainest  of  men." 

"When  unfortunate"  and  "when  prosperous"  is  better. 

Phrases  and  clauses  should  be  rejected,  like  words,  whenever 
they  are  superfluous.  It  has  already  been  shown  how  such 
phrases  interfere  with  perspicuity,  but  reference  is  now  made 
to  cases  in  which  there  is  no  obscurity  at  all.  Indeed,  a  fault 
often  arises  from  the  very  effort  to  give  additional  clearness, 
but  the  result  is  a  certain  tediousness  and  feebleness,  by  which 
the  sentence  is  weakened,  and  all  its  clearness  thus  made  of  no 
avail. 

In  the  style  of  Johnson  there  is  a  perpetual  tendency  to  repeat 
the  idea  expressed  in  one  clause  under  a  different  form  in  the 
next.  A  proposition  is  made,  then  reiterated  in  other  words, 
and  this  again  is  discussed  only  to  be  again  presented.  By  a 
plentiful  use  of  the  figures  of  antithesis,  apposition,  and  the 
like,  there  is  apparent  variety ;  but  when  the  subject-matter  is 
analyzed  the  redundancies  become  apparent,  and  thus  the 
judgment  of  De  Quincey  can  scarcely  be  considered  too 
severe  when  he  says  that  Johnson  was  "  the  most  faulty  writer 
in  this  kind  of  inanity  that  has  ever  played  tricks  with  lan- 
guage." 

In  the  following  example  the  repetitions  are  italicized: 

"He  that  willingly  suffers  the  corrosions  of  inveterate  hatred,  and  gives 
up  his  days  and  nights  to  the  gloom  and  malice  and  perturbations  o/stratugem^ 
cannot  surely  be  said  to  consult  his  ease." 

Here  a  self-evident  proposition  is  presented  with  unrivalled 
wordiness  and  turgidity. 

"  Resentment  is  a  union  of  sorrow  with  malignity,  a  combination  of  a 
passion  which  all  endeavor  to  avoid  with  a  passion  which  all  concur  to 
detest" 


In  the  second  clause  there  is  a  met^J^^^^^^i^^aning 
of  the  first,  presented  as  a  comment,  with  an  attempt  to  con- 
ceal its  monotony  under  the  form  of  antithesis. 

§  230.   PRECISION. 

Another  essential  to  energy  is  precision.  By  this  quality  the 
writer  is  enabled  to  say  exactly  what  he  means,  and  to  speak 
directly  to  the  point.  This  subject  has  already  been  fully  dis- 
cussed in  respect  of  the  nature  of  words,  and  the  distinctions 
in  their  meanings ;  but  something  still  remains  to  be  said  with 
regard  10  its  connection  with  energy,  and  this  refers  chiefly  to 
the  superiority  in  this  respect  of  definite  terms  over  indefinite. 

§  231.  THE     DEFINITE     MORE     ENERGETIC    THAN    THE 
INDEFINITE. 

The  use  of  the  definite  for  the  indefinite  tends  to  produce 
a  forcible  impression  upon  the  mind.  It  gives  a  distinct 
picture  of  something,  instead  of  a  vague  statement,  and  upon 
this  the  mind  seizes.  Whenever  an  author  is  able  to  particu- 
larize, he  is  sure  of  exciting  interest.  Among  the  character- 
istics of  the  style  of  Macaulay,  none  will  serve  to  account  for 
its  great  vigor  and  effectiveness  more  than  his  attention  to  this 
very  thing. 

"  Five  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era,  the  citizens  of  the  repub- 
lics around  the  /^gean  Sea  formed  perhaps  the  finest  militia  that  ever 
existed." 

Here  there  is  a  description  full  of  picturesque  force  of  the 
"Greeks,"  suggesting  their  republican  forms,  and  the  situation 
of  the  Greek  states. 

"The  Highland  gentleman  who  a  century  ago  lived  by  taking  black- 
mail from  his  neighbors  committed  the  same  crime  for  which  Wild  was 
accompanied  to  Newgate  by  the  huzzas  of  two  hundred  thousand  people." 

Here  the  indefinite  terms  would  be  illustrated  by  a  sentence 
like  the  following:  The  Highland  chiefs  committed  with  im- 
punity the  same  crimes  for  which  English  highwaymen  were 
executed.  "  Blackmail,"  "  neighbors,"  "  Wild,"  "  Newgate," 
and  "  huzzas  of  two  hundred  thousand  spectators,"  are  all  bits 


210  Elements  of  R/tetoric. 

of  definite  description,  which  are  reproduced  by  the  mind  in 
the  most  vivid  manner. 

"  At  feeding-time  we  observe  that  men  of  all  nations  grow  savage  if,  by  a 
fine  scene,  you  endeavor  to  make  amends  for  a  bad  beefsteak." — Emerson. 

This  idea  expressed  in  an  indefinite  manner  would  be :  Men- 
tal taste  is  less  influential  than  bodily  appetite. 

"  Do  not  think  that  the  youth  has  no  force  because  he  cannot  speak  to 
you  and  me.  Hark,  in  the  next  room  who  spoke  so  clear  and  emphatic  ? 
Good  heaven  !  it  is  he — it  is  that  very  lump  of  bashfulness  and  phlegm 
which  for  weeks  has  done  nothing  but  eat  when  you  were  by,  that  now  rolls 
out  his  words  like  bell-strokes."— Emerson. 

This  vigorous  bit  of  description,  when  rendered  into  indefi- 
nite forms,  is :  We  cannot  tell  what  is  in  a  boy  by  observing 
his  action  towards  his  superiors. 

"  The  nonchalance  of  boys  who  are  sure  of  a  dinner  is  the  healthy  atti- 
tude of  human  nature." — Emerson. 

When  stated  indefinitely  this  becomes :  Man  is  seen  at  his 
best  in  times  of  prosperity. 

This  principle  is  visible  in  proverbs.  Here  the  indefinite  is 
avoided,  and  the  expression  assumes  a  direct  form  :  as — 

"  A  bird  in  the  hand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush." 
"  A  cat  in  gloves  catches  no  mice." 

§  232.  THE   CONCRETE    MORE    ENERGETIC   THAN   THE  ABSTRACT. 

The  same  principle  is  exemplified  by  the  superior  energy 
of  the  concrete  as  compared  with  the  abstract. 

Abstract  terms  are  grasped  with  difficulty  by  the  mind,  but 
the  concrete  tells  its  own  story.  The  one  is  vague,  the  other 
presents  a  picture.  The  allegory  affords  no  exception  to  this. 
Here  things  dealt  with  are  abstractions,  but  they  are  presented 
under  concrete  forms.  When  allegory  fails,  it  is  because  the 
personages  are  too  abstract. 

The  history  of  the  English  drama  is  instructive  on  this  point. 
In  the  Mystery  plays  of  the  Middle  Ages  religious  legends 
were  made  use  of,  and  the  characters  were  such  as  seemed 
real,  and  therefore  were  full  of  interest.  Then  came  the  era 
of  the  Morality  plays,  when  the  characters  were  abstract  qual- 


Energy.  21 1 

ities :  when  Catholicism  contended  with  Protestantism,  Ambi- 
tion with  Loyalty,  Patriotism  with  Treason,  Virtue  with  Vice. 
But  this  quickly  passed  away.  The  world  preferred  Macbeth 
to  Ambition,  and  Othello  to  Jealousy. 

The  same  thing  may  also  be  seen  in  sermons.  The  most 
uninteresting  and  least  effective  are  those  which  dwell  upon 
abstract  themes.  The  great  preachers  are  direct,  and  not  gen- 
eral ;  they  deal  little  in  abstractions.  They  come  to  the  hearer 
like  Nathan  to  David,  and  say,  "  Thou  art  the  man  !"  These 
are  the  men  who  reason  most  energetically,  because  most  def- 
initely, upon  temperance,  righteousness,  and  judgment  to  come, 
so  that,  like  Felix,  the  hearers  tremble. 

§  233.   DEMONSTRATIVE   WORDS   AN   AID   TO    ENERGY. 

The  demonstrative  pronouns  are  aids  towards  definiteness 
of  statement. 

*'  I  have  coveted  no  man's  silver  or  gold,"  says  St  Paul ;  "  yea,  you  your- 
selves are  witnesses  that  these  hands  have  ministered." 

In  this  demonstrative  there  is  unusual  force.  A  fuller  de- 
monstrative is  to  be  seen  in  the  following : 

"  That  tongue  of  his  that  bade  the  Romans  mark  him." 
"Yonder"  and  "yon"  point  out  a  thing  with  great  force  : 

"  Near  yonder  copse."  "  Hard  by  yon  wood."  "  Yon  tower-capp'd 
Acropolis." 

Also  where  an  object  is  still  more  distinctly  pointed  out,  as 
in  the  figure  vision  : 

"  The  Niobe  of  nations — there  she  stands, 
Childless  and  crownless  !" — Byron. 

This  definiteness  is  increased  by  the  use  of  proper  names 
rather  than  common  terms ;  for  a  proper  name  is  the  most  def- 
inite possible.  Thus  we  may  go  through  different  gradations  of 
definiteness  in  the  following  order:  A  man,  a  Greek,  an  Athe- 
nian, an  Athenian  philosopher,  Socrates.  When  we  come  to 
the  name  "  Socrates,"  we  have  reached  a  point  in  the  way  of 
definiteness  beyond  which  we  can  go  no  farther. 

Thus,  in  the  saying  attributed  to  Nelson,  "  A  peerage  or 
Westminster  Abbey,"  we  have  the  definiteness  of  a  proper 

K 


212  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

name,  and  an  expression  of  the  same  idea  which  is  found  more 
generally  stated  in  "Victory  or  death." 

"  When  I  rest  in  perfect  humility,"  says  Emerson,  "when  I  bum  in  pure 
love,  what  can  Calvin  or  Swedenborg  say  more  ?" 

Here  the  names  "Calvin"  and  "Swedenborg"  represent 
respectively  "dogmatic  theology"  and  "mysticism." 

§  234.   PROPER   TERMS. 

The  effective  employment  of  proper  names  is  admirably 
illustrated  in  the  following  passage  from  Macaulay,  which  is 
so  well  known  that  the  image  in  the  last  clause  has  become 
proverbial.     Speaking  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  he  says  : 

**  She  was  great  and  respected  before  the  Saxon  had  set  foot  in  Britain, 
before  the  Frank  had  passed  the  Rhine,  when  Grecian  eloquence  still  flour- 
ished at  Antioch,  when  idols  were  still  worshipped  at  the  temple  of  Mecca; 
and  she  may  still  exist  in  undiminished  vigor  when  some  traveller  from 
New  Zealand  shall,  in  the  mid&t  of  a  vast  solitude,  take  his  stand  on  a 
broken  arch  of  London  Bridge  to  sketch  the  ruins  of  St  PauPs." 

Here,  instead  of  the  general  phrases,  "ancient  times"  or 
"  before  the  rise  of  modern  nations,"  we  have  a  series  of  his- 
torical events  brought  forward,  such  as  the  origin  of  England 
and  France,  and  suggestions  of  the  prevalence  of  Christianity 
and  the  rise  of  Mohammedanism,  while,  instead  of  "  future 
times,"  we  have  the  vivid  picture  of  the  New  Zealander. 

Reduced  to  indefinite  expressions  the  above  sentence  would 
read  :  She  was  great  and  respected  before  the  rise  of  modem 
nations,  and  she  may  still  exist  in  undiminished  vigor  in  the 
distant  future,  when  a  new  civilization  shall  supplant  the  old. 

Another  passage  from  the  same  author  illustrates  this  prin- 
ciple equally  well.  His  statement  in  general  terms  is  that  the 
policy  of  the  Church  of  Rome  has  been  to  encourage  reformers 
and  aid  them  to  the  utmost,  while  that  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land has  been  to  thwart  and  repel  them.  With  his  usual  love 
of  definiteness,  he  expresses  this  in  the  following  way  : 

"  At  Rome  the  Countess  of  Huntingdon  would  have  had  a  place  in  the 
calendar  as  St.  Selina,  and  Mrs.  Fry  would  be  the  foundress  and  first  su- 
perior of  the  Blessed  Order  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Jails.  Place  Ignatius  Loy- 
ola at  Oxford.  He  is  certain  to  become  the  head  of  a  formidable  secession. 
Place  John  Wesley  at  Rome.  He  is  certain  to  be  the  first  general  of  a  new 
society  devoted  to  the  interests  and  honor  of  the  Church." 


Energy,  2 1 3 

§  235.   OTHER   QUALITIES   OF   STYLE   THAT   TENI>  TO    ENERGY. 

There  are  certain  terms  applied  to  style  which  are  some- 
times used  as  synonymous  with  energy,  and  sometimes  as  in- 
dicative of  qualities  that  tend  to  energy.  The  chief  of  these 
will  now  be  considered. 

Vehemence  is  an  important  quality  in  oratory.  It  was 
the  chief  characteristic  of  Demosthenes,  called  by  ^schines 
cuyu-r\q^  when  he  took  the  trouble  to  warn  the  judges  against 
the  fiery  energy  of  his  great  opponent.  The  best  examples 
of  this  in  English  literature  are  to  be  found  in  the  speeches 
of  the  Earl  of  Chatham,  from  one  of  which  the  following  pas- 
sage is  taken :  t 

"The  people  whom  they  affect  to  call  contemptible  rebels,  but  whose 
growing  power  has  at  last  obtained  the  name  of  enemies;  the  people  with 
whom  they  have  engaged  this  country  in  war,  and  against  whom  they  now 
demand  our  implicit  support  in  €very  measure  of  desperate  hostility — this 
people,  despised  as  rebels  or  acknowledged  as  enemies,  are  abetted  against 
you,  supplied  with  every  military  store,  their  interests  consulted,  and  their 
ambassadors  entertained  by  your  inveterate  enemy,  and  our  ministers  dare 
not  interpose  with  dignity  or  effcct.  Is  this  the  honor  of  a  great  kingdom  ? 
Is  this  the  indignant  spirit  of  England,  who  but  yesterday  gave  laws  to  the 
house  of  Boarbon  ?" 

Vehemence  implies  strpng  personal  feeling,  and  therefore 
it  is  peculiar  to  oratory.  It  is  also  seen  in  other  kinds  of  com- 
position ;  as,  for  instance,  in  the  famous  letter  of  the  Caliph 
Haroun-al-Raschid  to  the  Emperor  Nicephorus : 

**  Haroun-al-Raschid,  the  Commander  of  the  Faithful,  to  Nicephorus  the 
Roman  dog — I  have  received  thy  letter,  oh  thou  son  of  an  unbelieving 
mother !     Thon  shalt  not  hear,  thou  shalt  behold  my  reply." 

The  term  massive  is  sometimes  applied  to  a  style  which 
exhibits  cogent  argument  in  concise  language  expressed  with 
dignity  and  force : 

"  Though  all  the  winds  of  doctrine  were  let  loose  to  play  upon  the  earth, 
so  truth  be  in  the  field,  we  do  injuriously,  by  licensing  and  prohibiting,  to 
misdoubt  her  strength.  Let  her  and  falsehood  grapple.  Who  ever  knew 
truth  to  be  put  to  the  worse  in  a  free  and  open  encounter?" — Milton. 

A  style  is  called  masculine  when  it  exhibits  a  certain  rug- 
ged force  without  much  attention  to  elegance.  This  term 
is  often  applied  to  the  prose  of  Carlyle  and  the  poetry  of 


214  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Browning.  Here  there  are  frequent  faults  of  carelessness,  or 
even  rudeness ;  but  the  great  qualities  of  these  writers  make 
them  effective  in  spite  of  such  faults. 

A  style  which  exhibits  conciseness  without  meagreness,  and 
which  is  forcible  and  axiomatic,  is  called  terse  : 

"  If  you  would  not  be  known  to  do  anything,  never  do  it  A  man  may 
play  the  fool  in  the  drifts  of  the  desert,  but  every  grain  of  sand  shall  seem 
to  see." — Emerson. 

"  We  are  told  by  Mr.  Dundas  that  there  is  no  eagerness  for  reform.  Five 
minutes  before  Moses  struck  the  rock  this  gentleman  would  have  said  that 
there  was  no  eagerness  for  water." — Sydney  Smith. 

An  incisive  style  means  the  exhibition  of  great  precision  and 
conciseness;  direct  force,  keenness,  and  adroitness,  with  a  dash 
of  sarcasm  : 

"  I  found  in  your  letter  the  usual  remarks  about  fire,  fagot,  and  bloody 
Mary.  Are  you  aware,  my  dear  priest,  that  there  were  as  many  persons 
put  to  death  for  religious  opinions  under  the  mild  Elizabeth  as  under  the 
bloody  Mary  ?  The  reign  of  the  former  was,  to  be  sure,  ten  times  as  long ; 
but  I  only  mention  the  fact,  merely  to  show  you  that  something  depends  on 
the  age  in  which  men  live,  as  well  as  on  their  religious  opinions.  Three 
hundred  years  ago  men  burned  and  hanged  one  another  for  these  opinions. 
Time  has  softened  Catholic  as  well  as  Protestant  They  both  required  it, 
though  each  perceives  only  his  own  improvement,  and  is  blind  to  that  of 
the  other.  We  are  all  the  creatures  of  circumstances.  I  know  not  a  kind- 
er or  a  better  man  than  yourself;  but  you,  if  you  had  lived  in  those  times, 
would  certainly  have  roasted  your  Catholic" — Sydney  Smith. 

Soberness  implies  gravity  and  restraint,  the  absence  both  of 
emotion  and  of  ornament.  It  is  generally  confined  to  writings 
of  an  argumentative  character,  and  the  most  familiar  examples 
are  the  so-called  "  doctrinal "  sermons.  The  force  that  is  in 
these  arises  from  the  cogency  of  the  argument. 

Severity  implies  a  still  greater  restraint  upon  style.  The 
argument  here  is  made  the  chief  thing;  and  the  only  aim  of 
the  writer  is  to  present  this  with  clearness,  leaving  it  to  pro- 
duce its  effect.  Severity  requires  the  utmost  conciseness  of  ex- 
pression and  an  utter  absence  of  ornament.  Butler's  Analogy 
may  be  mentioned  as  an  example. 

Dignity  is  exhibited  where  the  thought  is  elevated  and  the 
style  is  more  or  less  elaborate.  It  is  associated  with  a  certain 
stateliness  and  pomp.     The  term  is  often  applied  to  the  style 


Energy.  215 

of  Johnson,  Gibbon,  Robertson.     The  following  passage  from 
Carlyle  will  serve  as  an  illustration  : 

"Conquerors  are  a  race  with  whom  the  world  could  well  dispense ;  nor 
can  the  hard  intellect,  the  unsympathizing  loftiness,  and  high  but  selfish 
enthusiasm  of  such  persons  inspire  us  in  general  with  any  affection  ;  at  best 
it  may  excite  amazement ;  and  their  fall,  like  that  of  a  pyramid,  will  be  be- 
held with  a  certain  sadness  and  awe.  But  a  true  poet,  a  man  in  whose 
heart  resides  some  affluence  of  wisdom,  some  tone  of  the  'eternal  melodies,' 
is  the  most  precious  gift  that  can  be  bestowed  on  a  generation ;  we  see  in 
him  a  freer,  purer  development  of  whatever  is  noblest  in  ourselves ;  his  life 
is  a  rich  lesson  to  us  ;  and  we  mourn  his  death  as  that  of  a  benefactor  who 
loved  and  taught  us." 

§  236.    ILLUSTRATIONS   FROM    VARIOUS   AUTHORS. 

Before  concluding  this  notice  of  energy,  it  may  be  well  to  give 
a  few  further  illustrations  from  authors  who  are  distinguished 
for  this  quality;  and  here  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that 
the  first  place  in  this  respect  must  be  assigned  to  the  Sacred 
Scriptures.  This  is  owing  partly  to  the  nature  of  the  Hebrew 
mind,  which  was  characterized  by  a  power  of  intense  concen- 
tration on  one  thing,  so  that  its  utterances  were  made  with  a 
vehemence  and  fervor  that  surpass  everything  else  known  to 
the  sons  of  men.  It  is  also  due  in  part  to  the  themes  treated 
of,  which  were  such  as  stir  up  the  feelings  to  their  lowest  depth. 
This  will  be  the  conclusion  of  those  who  consider  the  character 
of  those  writings  merely  from  a  literary  point  of  view,  and  with 
no  reference  to  their  theological  or  spiritual  claims. 

Shakespeare,  who  exhibits  every  quality,  is  equal  to  every 
occasion,  and  affords  examples  of  the  most  energetic  expres- 
sion.    His  works  abound  with  such  phrases  as  these : 

"The  foremost  man  of  all  the  world."  "A  deed  without  a  name." 
"  Pride,  pomp,  and  circumstance  of  glorious  war."  "  Curses  not  loud,  but 
deep."  "Thrilling  regions  of  thick-ribbed  ice."  "The  deep  damnation  of 
his  taking  oft" 

The  greatness  of  Milton's  themes,  and  the  intense  earnest- 
ness of  his  character,  makes  this  quality  a  prevalent  one  in  the 
works  of  that  author.  The  following  examples  will  serve  to  il- 
lustrate his  capacity  for  energetic  expression  : 

"Infinite  wrath  and  infinite  despair."  "A  shout  that  tore  hell's  con- 
cave."    "  The  mind  is  its  own  place,  and  in  itself  can  make  a  heaven  of 


2i6  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

hell,  a  hell  of  heaven."    "  Fierce  as  ten  furies,  terrible  as  hell."    "  Millions 
of  spirits  for  his  fault  amerced."     "  Tears  such  as  angels  weep." 

Energy  is  manifest  among  the  succeeding  English  poets; 
but  nowhere  in  the  same  degree  till  we  come  to  Byron,  with 
whom  it  is  the  prominent  quality.  The  following  passages 
are  in  his  most  vehement  manner : 

"Though  the  strained  mast  should  quiver  as  a  reed. 
And  the  rent  canvas  fluttering  strew  the  gale, 
Still  I  must  on." 

**  From  peak  to  peak,  the  rattling  crags  among. 
Leaps  the  live  thunder." 

"  The  hell  of  waters !   how  they  howl  and  hiss, 
And  boil  in  endless  torture." 

"A  father's  love  and  mortal's  agony 
With  an  immortal's  patience  blending." 

Scott  and  Campbell  exhibit  this  quality  in  a  high  degree, 
and  in  our  own  day  it  is  visible  in  Browning.  The  following 
passages  afford  examples: 

•*  The  war  that  for  a  space  did  fail. 
Now  trebly  thundering  swelled  the  gale. 
And — '  Stanley  !'  was  the  cry." — Scott. 

"  Then  shook  the  hills  with  thunder  riven. 
Then  rushed  the  steed  to  battle  driven. 
And  louder  than  the  host  of  heaven. 

Far  flashed  the  red  artillery."— Campbell. 

§  237.    FAULTS   OF   STYLE   AS   OPPOSED  TO    ENERGY. 

It  remains  now  to  notice  the  faults  of  style  as  opposed  to 
energy. 

The  most  prominent  of  these  is  the  weak  style,  by  which  is 
meant  that  sort  of  writing  in  which  the  language  falls  short  of 
the  subject  or  occasion. 

If,  for  example,  the  occasion  demands  vehement  force,  a 
style  that  is  merely  elegant  would  be  weak,  since  it  would  be 
utterly  inadequate.  Thus  the  style  and  treatment  of  one  of 
Addison's  papers  in  the  Spectator  would  be  weak  when  brought 
to  bear  upon  a  great  theme  like  that  of  the  guilt  or  innocence 
of  Warren  Hastings. 


Energy.  2 1 7^ 

A  weak  style  also  results  when  an  author  undertakes  a  task 
that  is  above  him,  as  when  Martin  Farquhar  Tupper  ventured 
to  write  a  conclusion  to  Christabel.  In  general,  when  an  au- 
thor is  successful  in  one  class  of  writing,  he  should  apply  him- 
self to  that,  and  not  go  beyond  it.  A  good  essayist  will  write 
weak  novels.  The  brilliant  Macaulay  left  a  fragment  of  a  very 
dull  work  of  fiction  ;  the  witty  poet  Aytoun  failed  as  a  novelist; 
the  novelist  Bulwer  was  by  no  means  brilliant  as  an  essayist; 
Dickens  was  nothing  outside  of  his  fictions.  In  short,  when  a 
writer  leaves  his  own  department,  and  attempts  another,  the 
result  is  deplorable,  except  in  the  case  of  a  few  very  versatile 
minds.  No  one  affirms  this  more  strongly  than  Horace,  who 
again  and  again  refuses  to  leave  his  light  themes  for  the  loftier 
but  more  dangerous. realms  of  epic  song. 

In  these  cases  the  style  may  be  said  to  be  only  relatively 
weak.  There  is  another  weakness  of  style,  which  amounts  to 
positive  puerility,  where  the  writer  shows  plainly  that  his  ideas 
are  feeble,  that  he  has  no  clear  grasp  even  of  these,  and  that 
he  has  no  power  of  giving  them  adequate  expression.  But 
such  a  style  as  this  does  not  belong  to  literature,  and  therefore 
may  be  dismissed  from  our  consideration. 

Similar  to  this  is  the  languid  style,  which  indicates  a  want  of 
interest  in  the  subject  on  the  part  of  the  author. 

Tameness  is  a  fault  of  the  same  nature,  and  indicates  a  lack 
of  proper  spirit  and  boldness. 

The  effeminate  style  is  that  in  which  attention  is  paid  to 
smoothness,  euphony,  and  elegance  of  expression,  where  the 
ideas  are  feeble  or  conventional,  and  there  is  an  utter  absence 
of  earnestness  of  purpose. 


2 1 8  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 


CHAPTER  XL 

VIVACITY. 
§  238.    DEFINITION   OF   VIVACITY. 

The  word  vivacity  is  used  by  Dr.  Campbell  in  a  very  extend- 
ed sense,  being  selected  by  him  to  include  all  those  qualities 
which  are  here  represented  by  the  general  term  persuasive- 
ness. 

In  a  more  restricted  sense  it  may  be  defined  as  the  exhibi- 
tion of  life  and  feeling,  of  vividness  in  portrayal,  and  perpetual 
variety  in  expression. 

The  worst  faults  in  composition  are  dulness  in  conception 
and  monotony  in  expression.  With  other  faults  failure  is  not 
so  inevitable,  for  there  may  be  success  of  a  certain  kind. 
There  are  books  which  exhibit  every  variety  of  vice  in  style — 
the  obscure,  the  florid,  the  puerile,  the  vulgar,  the  flippant,  the 
pretentious;  yet  in  spite  of  such  faults  they  reach  a  certain 
class  of  readers;  but  where  there  is  dulness  and  monotony, 
even  such  success  as  this  is  unattainable,  and  there  can  be  no 
result  save  utter  failure. 

Vivacity  is  opposed  to  both  of  these.  To  dulness  it  opposes 
animation ;  to  monotony  it  opposes  perpetual  variety.  It  rises 
from  the  lowest  stage  of  liveliness  to  the  highest  enthusiasm ; 
and  in  expression  it  makes  use  of  every  conceivable  device  to 
vary  perpetually  the  form  of  statement. 

Energy  refers  to  strength  of  words  and  intensity  of  thought 
and  feeling;  vivacity  connects  itself  rather  with  versatility  in 
thought  and  statement.  Energy  belongs  more  exclusively  to 
eloquence,  and  springs  more  directly  from  nature ;  vivacity  as- 
sociates itself  readily  with  art,  and  is  more  entirely  rhetorical. 
For  this  reason  vivacity  is  connected  with  all  the  arts  of  em- 
bellishment ;  it  brings  to  its  aid  all  the  figures  of  speech,  and 
blends  a  profusion  of  imagery  with  affluence  of  expression. 

According  to  the  definition  above  given,  vivacity  refers  first 


Vivacity,  219 

to  the  thought,  and  secondly  to  the  expression.  In  order  to 
consider  this  topic  fully,  it  will  be  necessary  therefore  to  ob- 
serve it  according  as  it  refers  to  either  of  these  departments. 

§  239.    VIVACITY   AS    IT   REFERS    TO   THE   THOUGHT. 

I.  Vivacity  as  it  refers  to  the  thought  may  exist  in  various 
gradations. 

Animation  may  be  considered  as  the  first  ascent  above  the 
level  of  ordinary  expression,  and  may  be  defined  as  that  degree 
of  feeling  which  is  quite  under  control,  and  merely  serves  to 
give  life  and  interest  to  composition.  The  term  liveliness  may 
be  considered  as  almost  synonymous  with  it,  yet  it  is  somewhat 
different,  for  it  involves  the  exhibition  of  cheerfulness  and  pleas- 
antry, with  the  addition  in  some  cases  of  wit  and  humor.  With 
liveliness  sprightliness  is  almost  interchangeable.  Any  author 
who  writes  with  evident  interest  in  his  work  is  animated;  but 
a  lively  writer  is  one  who  throws  over  his  style  a  certain  cheer- 
ful glow  which  is  communicated  to  the  reader. 

Rising  beyond  these  we  come  to  a  feeling  which  is  called 
abandon.  The  term  is  applied  to  those  cases  where  the  writer 
seems  to  abandon  himself  to  his  subject,  or  is  carried  away  by 
it.  In  its  lower  grades  it  is  like  liveliness  and  animation,  and 
amounts  to  little  more  than  a  kind  of  confidential  manner  or 
communicativeness.  It  is  very  common  with  Thackeray,  and 
is  illustrated  in  the  following  passage : 

"  Would  you  not  like  to  slip  back  into  the  past  and  be  introduced  to  Mr. 
Addison? — not  the  Right  Honorable  Joseph  Addison,  Esq.,  George  II. 's 
Secretary  of  State,  but  to  the  delightful  painter  of  contemporary  manners ; 
the  man  who,  when  in  good-humor  himself,  was  the  pleasantest  companion 
in  all  England,  I  should  like  to  go  into  Lockit's  with  him,  and  drink  a  bowl 
along  with  Sir  Richard  Steele,  who  has  just  been  knighted  by  King  George, 
and  who  does  not  happen  to  have  any  money  to  pay  his  share  of  the  reck- 
oning. I  should  not  care  to  follow  Mr.  Addison  to  his  secretary's  office  in 
Whitehall.  There  we  get  into  politics.  Our  business  is  pleasure,  and  the 
town,  and  the  coffee-house,  and  the  theatre,  and  the  Mall.  Delightful  Spec- 
tator !  kind  friend  of  leisure  hours !  happy  companion  !  true  Christian 
gentleman  !  How  much  greater,  better  you  are  than  the  king  Mr.  Secretary 
kneels  to !" 

But  in  its  higher  manifestations  this  abandon  leads  to  the 
most  rapturous  flights  of  the  imagination,  as  in  Shelley's  ode 
on  the  Skylark: 

K2 


220  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

**  Teach  me  half  the  gladness 

That  thy  brain  must  know, 

Such  harmonious  madness 

From  my  lips  would  flow, 

The  world  should  listen  then,  as  I  am  listening  now." 

It  was  this  total  abandonment  of  himself  to  his  theme  that 
led  to  that  sublime  outburst  of  Demosthenes,  in  which  he  swears 
by  those  who  fought  at  Marathon. 

But  this  brings  us  to  that  higher  stage  of  feeling  and  expression 
known  as  eloquence,  one  of  the  modes  in  which  vivacity  may 
be  manifested.  Eloquence  which  is  simple  and  natural  may 
be  regarded  as  belonging  to  a  display  of  energy,  but  where  it  is 
ornate  and  elaborate  it  is  connected  rather  with  vivacity.  Such 
a  display  is  seen  in  the  following  passage  from  Erskine's  speech 
on  Stockdale.  He  is  alluding  to  the  trial  of  Warren  Hast- 
ings : 

"  There  the  most  august  and  striking  spectacle  was  daily  exhibited  which 
the  world  ever  witnessed.  A  vast  stage  of  justice  was  erected,  awful  from 
its  high  authority  ;  splendid  from  its  illustrious  dignity  ;  venerable  from  the 
learning  and  wisdom  of  its  judges  ;  captivating  and  affecting  from  the  mighty 
concourse  of  all  ranks  and  conditions  which  daily  flocked  into  it  as  into  a 
theatre  of  pleasure.  There,  where  the  whole  public  mind  was  at  once  awed 
and  softened  to  the  impression  of  every  human  affection,  there  appeared, 
day  after  day,  one  after  another,  men  of  the  most  powerful  and  exalted  tal- 
ents, eclipsing  by  their  accusing  eloquence  the  most  boasted  harangues  of 
antiquity  ;  rousing  the  pride  of  national  resentment  by  the  boldest  invectives 
against  broken  faith  and  violated  treaties  ;  and  shaking  the  bosom  with  al- 
ternate pity  and  horror  by  the  most  glowing  pictures  of  insulted  nature  and 
humanity  ;  ever  animated  and  energetic  from  the  love  of  fame  which  is  the 
inherent  passion  of  genius  ;  firm  and  indefatigable  from  a  strong  preposses- 
sion of  the  justice  of  their  cause." 

Beyond  this  there  is  a  still  higher  elevation— enthusiasm, 
which  may  be  defined  as  the  sustained  warmth  and  glow  of  in- 
tense personal  feeling.  This  may  be  seen  in  Martineau's  ar- 
gument from  a  disaster  at  sea  : 

"There  were  travellers  from  foreign  lands,  ready  with  pleased  heart  to 
tell  at  home  the  thousand  marvels  they  had  gathered  on  their  way.  There 
was  a  family  of  mourners,  taking  to  their  household  graves  their  unburied 
dead.  And  there  was  one  at  least  of  rare  truth  and  wisdom,  of  designs 
than  which  philanthropy  knows  nothing  greater  ;  of  faith  that  all  must  ven- 
erate, and  love  that  all  must  trust ;  of  persuasive  lips,  from  which  a  thought- 
ful genius  and  the  simplest  heart  poured  forth  the  true  music  of  humanity. 
And  does  any  one  believe  that  this  freight  of  transcendent  worth — all  this 


Vivacity.  221 

sorrow,  and  thought,  and  hope,  and  moral  greatness,  and  pure  affection — 
was  burned,  and  went  out  with  flame  and  cotton-smoke  ?  Sooner  would  I 
believe  that  fire  consumed  the  less  everlasting  stars  !  Such  a  galaxy  of  spir- 
itual light  and  order  and  beauty  is  spread  above  the  elements  and  their 
power,  and  neither  heat  can  scorch  it  nor  cold  water  drown.  The  bleak 
wind  that  swept  in  the  morning  over  the  black  and  heaving  wreck  would 
moan  in  the  ear  of  sympathy  with  the  wail  of  a  thousand  survivors,  but  to 
the  ear  of  wisdom  and  of  faith  would  sound  as  the  returning  whisper  and 
requiem  of  hope." 

The  high  enthusiasm  that  is  perceptible  in  this  passage  trans- 
forms it  from  argument  to  poetry. 

§  240.    VIVACITY   AS    IT   REFERS   TO   THE    EXPRESSION. 

2.  Vivacity  as  it  refers  to  the  expression  is  produced  by  va- 
rious qualities  which  will  be  considered  in  order.  The  first  of 
these  is  copiousness. 

§  241.    COPIOUSNESS. 

Copiousness  in  its  more  general  meaning  is  referred  by 
Quintilian  to  thought  as  well  as  expression.  "There  is  one 
kind,"  says  he,  "  that  is  rich  in  thought,  and  another  that 
abounds  in  flowers."  Here,  however,  the  latter  only  is  meant, 
and  indicates  amplitude  andJulness  of  diction,  where  there  is  a 
vocabulary  of  unusual  richness  and  abundant  imagery.  This 
is  the  characteristic  of  the  writings  of  Jeremy  Taylor,  Landor, 
and  Ruskin. 

§   242.    VERSATILITY. 

Another  quality  that  conduces  to  vivacity  is  versatility. 

Versatility  is  also  called  variety.  This  refers  to  an  author's 
power  to  adapt  his  style  to  many  different  subjects.  The  most 
remarkable  example  of  this  in  English  literature  is  Shakespeare, 
who  was  great  in  tragedy,  comedy,  and  lyric  poetry.  In  French* 
literature  Voltaire  is  a  striking  instance  of  this,  since  his  works 
consist  of  philosophical  essays,  tragedy,  and  epic  poetry.  Bul- 
wer  Lytton  is  a  versatile  author,  since  he  produced  two  differ- 
ent classes  of  novels,  epic  poetry,  dramatic  works,  and  lyric 
poetry.  Tennyson  is  another  example,  though  of  a  different 
kind,  for  his  poetry  represents  five  distinct  classes:  ist.  The 
Romantic,  or  Arthurian  Epic;  2d,  Classical,  as  Ulysses,  Titho- 
nus;  3d,  Domestic,  as  The  Miller's  Daughter, The  May  Queen; 
4lh,  Emotional,  as   Maud,  Locksley   Hall;  5th,  Songs.      Sir 


222  Elemejits  of  Rhetoric. 

Walter  Scott  wrote  90  volumes :  48  of  novels,  2 1  of  history  and 
biography,  2 1  gf  poetry. 

§   243.    BRILLIANCY. 

The  next  quality  associated  with  vivacity  is  brilliancy.  By 
this  is  meant  a  high  degree  of  animation,  a  copious  diction, 
and  abundant  imagery.  With  these  wit  and  humor  are  some- 
times blended. 

Among  those  who  are  most  conspicuous  for  the  display  of 
this  quality  are  Hazlitt,  Lamb,  Leigh  Hunt,  Sydney  Smith,  and 
Macau  lay. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  a  brilliant  passage  in  oratory 
from  Curran's  speech  on  behalf  of  Rowan  : 

"  No  matter  in  what  language  his  doom  may  have  been  pronounced  ;  no 
matter  what  complexion  incompatible  with  freedom  an  Indian  or  an  African 
sun  may  have  burned  upon  him  ;  no  matter  in  what"  disastrous  battle  his 
liberty  may  have  been  cloven  down  ;  no  matter  with  what  solemnities  he 
may  have  been  devoted  upon  the  altar  of  slavery ;  the  first  moment  he 
touches  the  sacred  soil  of  Britain,  the  altar  and  the  god  sink  together  in 
the  dust ;  his  soul  walks  abroad  in  her  own  majesty ;  his  body  swells  be- 
yond the  measure  of  the  chains  that  burst  from  around  him ;  and  he  stands 
redeemed,  regenerated,  and  disenthralled  by  the  irresistible  genius  of  Uni- 
versal Emancipation."  « 

§  244.   VIVIDNESS. 
Another  quality  which  may  be  mentioned  is  vividness.    This 
is  the  representation  of  facts  or  occurrences  with  unusual  clear- 
ness and  force  of  expression,  so  as  to  make  the  scene  live  before 
the  mind.     A  familiar  example  is  found  in  Byron's  lines : 

•*  And  there  was  mounting  in  hot  haste  :  the  steed, 

The  mustering  squadron,  and  the  clattering  car, 

Went  pouring  forward  with  impetuous  speed, 

And  swiftly  forming  in  the  ranks  of  war ; 

And  the  deep  thunder  peal  on  peal  afar ; 

And  near,  the  beat  of  the  alarming  drum 

Roused  up  the  soldier  ere  the  morning  star ; 

While  thronged  the  citizens  with  terror  dumb, 
Or  whispering,  with  white  lips,  '  The  foe  !    They  come,  they  come  !' " 

§   245.    FELICITY    OF   STYLE. 

Another  quality  of  great  importance  is  that  which  is  called 
felicity  of  style. 


Vivacity.  223 

Felicity  has  much  in  common  with  precision,  but  goes  be- 
yond it.  What  precision  is  to  perspicuity,  felicity  is  to  vivacity. 
It  means  the  choice  of  the  best  possible  word ;  but  more  than 
this,  it  requires  that  the  word  should  have  great  suggestiveness, 
so  as  to  impress  the  mind  suddenly,  sharply,  and  permanently. 
This  quality  may  be  found  in  most  of  those  striking  sayings 
and  weighty  maxims  which  are  culled  from  the  works  of  great 
writers,  and  quoted  from  mouth  to  mouth,  till  they  become 
common  property  : 

"  History  is  philosophy  teaching  by  examples." — Bolingbroke. 

"These  are  the  times  that  try  men's  souls." — Thomas  Paine. 

"  It  has  all  the  contortions  of  the  Sibyl,  without  the  inspiration." — Burke. 

"  Kings  will  be  tyrants  from  policy,  when  subjects  are  rebels  from  prin- 
ciple."—Burke. 

"The  Commons,  faithful  to  their  system,  remained  in  a  state  of  masterly 
inactivity." — Sir  James  Mackintosh. 

"  It  is  more  than  a  crime  ;  it  is  a  political  blunder." — FoucH^. 

"  Washington — first  in  war,  first  in  peace,  and  first  in  the  hearts  of  his 
countrymen." — Henry  Lee. 

•'O  liberty  !  how  many  crimes  are  committed  in  thy  name  !" — Madame 
Roland. 

♦'  I  called  the  New  World  into  existence  to  redress  the  balance  of  the 
Old."— Canning. 

"  The  gratitude  of  place-expectants  is  a  lively  sense  of  future  favors." — 
Sir  Robert  Walpole. 

"  His  soul  was  like  a  star,  and  dwelt  apart." — Wordsworth. 

"  But  trailing  clouds  of  glory  do  we  come 
From  God,  who  is  our  home." — Wordsworth. 

§   246.    FAULTS   AS    OPPOSED    TO   VIVACITY. 

The  style  may  be  beneath  the  level  of  the  subject,  or  it  may 
be  beyond  it 

I.  When  the  style  is  beneath  the  level  of  the  subject. 

Vivacity  means  life,  animation,  perpetual  variety  in  the  ex- 
pression, abundant  use  of  all  the  multifarious  changes  of  man- 
ner afforded  by  the  figures  of  speech,  and  by  other  things  that 
have  been  named. 

Sometimes  the  fault  is  in  the  expression. 

Monotony  is  the  opposite  of  vivacity.  It  arises  when  the 
mode  of  expression  is  not  sufficiently  varied.  When  the  writer, 
for  sentence  after  sentence  and  page  after  page,  presents  his 


224  Elements  of  Rlietoric. 

thoughts  in  the  same  fashion,  it  produces  tediousness.  If  any 
composition  is  framed  in  all  its  sentences  after  one  unvarying 
model,  the  result  will  be  monotony.  If  all  the  sentences  are 
direct  statements,  and  are  never  varied  by  such  figures  as  in- 
terrogation, exclamation,  or  antithesis,  never  enlivened  by  com- 
parison, metaphor,  or  climax,  vivacity  is  out  of  the  question. 

Again,  if  a  writer  resorts  too  much  to  one  particular  figure, 
such  as  antithesis,  or  moulds  his  sentences  too  much  after  the 
same  fashion,  monotony  will  follow. 

In  general,  monotony  arises  when  the  composition,  though 
clear  and  correct,  and  even  harmonious,  shows  no  variety;  but 
being  pitched  upon  one  commonplace  key,  remains  there. 
Variety  being  necessary  to  stimulate  attention,  the  monotonous 
writer,  however  correct,  can  never  be  readable. 

Another  fault  consists  in  the  use  of  expressions  that  are  hack- 
neyed or  stale.  These  terms  are  applied  to  figures  of  speech, 
particularly  tropes,  epithets,  and  comparisons  which  have  been 
used  so  often  that  they  have  ceased  to  be  effective.  To  these 
the  term  "trite"  or  "worn  out"  has  also  been  applied.  These 
have  already  been  sufficiently  illustrated  under  other  heads. 

Sometimes  the  fault  is  in  the  statement.  In  this  case  it 
assumes  various  forms,  which  have  been  distinguished  by  dif- 
ferent names. 

The  following  are  especially  worthy  of  notice : 

Frigidity  is  a  cold,  unsympathetic  manner,  in  which  the 
writer  exhibits  no  animation  whatever.  It  is  usually  marked 
by  stiff  and  formal  expressions. 

Baldness  and  dulness  are  terms  used  to  designate  a  style 
which  is  utterly  free  from  any  attempt  to  enliven. 

A  heavy  style  is  that  in  which  the  sentiments  are  common- 
place, the  vocabulary  limited  yet  pretentious,  and  the  whole 
uninteresting  and  unreadable. 

Jejune  means  vacant,  empty,  or  void  of  matter  that  can  en- 
gage the  attention.  It  is  applied  to  writings  where  very  ordi- 
nary thoughts  are  expressed  in  a  tedious  and  lifeless  manner. 

Meagre  is  a  word  that  indicates  poverty  of  conception,  to- 
gether with  a  limited  vocabulary.  It  cannot  for  a  moment  be 
confounded  with  conciseness,  for  the  latter  exhibits  few  words 
because  their  number  is  purposely  limited ;  but  the  former  is 
poor  in  words  because  the  writer  has  few  at  his  command. 


Vivacity.  225 

2.  The  style  may  be  carried  beyond  the  level  of  the  subject. 

An  excess  of  vivacity  leads  to  another  set  of  faults  which, 
if  not  worse,  are  perhaps  more  marked. 

The  tendency  to  inflated  expression  is  injurious  to  vivacity, 
because  the  extravagance  is  apparent,  and  fails  in  its  effect. 
A  certain  amount  of  exaggeration  is  sometimes  allowable,  as 
in  the  figure  hyperbole  ;  but  this  to  be  effective  should  always 
be  sparingly  used. 

There  is  a  certain  inflation  of  style  associated  with  florid 
expressions,  extravagance  of  sentiment,  familiar  confidences, 
and  idle  display  of  feeling  in  the  form  of  frequent  ejaculations. 
To  this  the  term  "gushing"  is  sometimes  given. 

A  still  greater  excess  of  vivacity  results  in  other  faults,  known 
as  bombast,  fustian,  bathos,  etc. 

Bombast  was  originally  applied  to  a  stuff"  of  soft,  loose  text- 
ure, once  used  to  swell  the  garment.  Fustian  was  also  a  kind 
of  cloth  of  stiff"  expansive  character.  These  terms  are  applied 
to  a  high,  swelling  style  of  writing,  full  of  extravagant  sentiments 
and  expressions.  Bathos  is  a  word  which  has  the  same  appli- 
cation, meaning  generally  the  mock  heroic — that  "depth"  into 
which  one  falls  who  overleaps  the  sublime;  the  step  which  one 
makes  in  order  to  pass  from  the  sublime  to  the  ridiculous. 

"  Arrest  Simoom,  amid  thy  waste  of  sand, 
The  poisoned  javelin  balanced  in  his  hand; 
Fierce  in  blue  streams  he  rides  the  tainted  air, 
Points  his  keen  eye,  and  waves  his  whistling  hair, 
"While  as  he  turns,  the  undulating  soil 
Rolls  in  red  waves  and  billowy  deserts  boil." — Dr.  Darwin. 

"  Should  the  tempest  of  war  overshadow  our  land. 

Its  bolts  ne'er  could  rend  Freedom's  temple  asunder 
For  unmoved  at  its  portal  would  Washington  stand, 

And  repulse  with  his  breast  the  assaults  of  the  thunder." 

— Robert  Treat  Paine. 

Another  word  has  been  derived  from  the  tailor,  and  that  is 
"  padding,"  which  means  stuffing  a  coat,  but  tropically  is  made 
to  describe  the  useless  filling  in  of  composition.  This,  however, 
need  not  be  connected  at  all  with  bombast ;  it  may  be  perfectly 
simple,  literal,  and  painfully  true  in  its  tediousness,  yet  it  is 
perhaps  more  frequently  associated  with  bombast  than  not.  It 
is  least  faulty  when  used  to  create  interest ;  as  when  a  speaker 


226  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

interlards  his  argument  with  themes  suited  to  the  popular  taste. 
Digressions  are  always  allowable  when  not  carried  too  far,  but 
mere  padding  is  a  term  always  used  in  a  contemptuous  sense, 
and  is  meant  to  designate  a  fault. 

Analogous  to  bombast,  etc.,  are  such  terms  as  "buncombe," 
"hifalutin,"  which  have  come  into  use  in  America.  The  origin 
of  one  of  these  is  given  in  Wheeler's  History  of  North  Carolina: 

"  Several  years  ago,  in  Congress,  the  member  from  this  district  (Bun- 
combe) arose  to  address  the  house,  without  any  extraordinary  powers  in 
manner  or  matter  to  interest  the  audience.  Many  members  left  the  hall. 
Very  naively  he  told  those  that  remained  that  they  might  go,  too ;  he  should 
speak  for  some  time,  but  '  that  he  was  only  talking  for  Buncombe.' " 

The  following  are  illustrations: 

"  We  understand  it  now.  The  President  is  impatient  to  wreak  his  ven- 
geance on  South  Carolina.  Be  it  so.  Pass  your  measure,  sir !  Unchain 
your  tiger  !  Let  loose  your  war-dogs  as  soon  as  you  please  !  I  know  the 
people  you  desire  to  war  on.  They  await  you  with  unflinching,  unshrink- 
ing, unblanching  firmness." 

"  You  may  scoop  out  the  Valley  of  the  Mississippi  and  bury  truth  there  ; 
you  may  heap  over  her  grave  the  Alleghanies,  and  pile  above  these  the 
Rocky  Mountains— but  in  vain.     After  all  truth  will  have  her  resurrection." 


CHAPTER  Xn. 

THE    ILLUSTRATIVE    STYLE. 
§  247.  THE   ILLUSTRATIVE   STYLE. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  vivacity  there  are  certain 
distinctive  styles  of  writing  which  are  worthy  of  special  attention. 
The  first  of  these  to  be  considered  is  the  illustrative  style. 

This  name  is  given  to  a  certain  manner  of  composition 
where  the  subject  is  made  clear  and  attractive  by  means  of 
illustration.  Such  a  style  is  usually  in  the  highest  degree  per- 
spicuous, for  the  aim  of  the  writer  is  to  make  himself  under- 
stood ;  and  it  is  also  full  of  persuasiveness,  for  it  is  equally  his 
aim  to  commend  his  work  to  the  reader.  Therefore  he  spares 
no  pains  to  make  his  style  agreeable,  so  that  it  shall  win  atten- 
tion and  attract  sympathy. 


The  Illustrative  Style,  227 

•  In  examining  this  subject  it  will  be  found  that  there  are  cer- 
tain aids  of  which  the  writer  avails  himself,  and  which  accord- 
ingly form  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  illustrative  style. 
These  are  : 

1.  The  statement  of  general  propositions  accompanied  with 
particular  examples. 

2.  Allusion  or  quotation. 

3.  Comparison  or  metaphor. 

4.  Anecdote. 

§   248.   EXAMPLE. 

1.  The  illustrative  style  is  sometimes  characterized  by  gen- 
eral statements,  with  particular  examples : 

"  The  clergy  were  regarded  as,  on  the  whole,  a  plebeian  class  ;  and,  indeed, 
for  one  who  made  the  figure  of  a  gentleman,  ten  were  mere  menial  ser- 
vants. ...  A  young  Lcvite — such  was  the  phrase  then  in  use — might  be  had 
for  his  board,  a  small  garret,  and  ten  pounds  a  year ;  and  might  not  only 
perform  his  own  professional  functions  ;  might  not  only  be  the  most  patient 
of  butts  and  listeners;  might  not  only  be  always  ready  in  fine  weather  for 
bowls  and  in  rainy  weather  for  shovel-board ;  but  might  also  save  the  ex- 
pense of  a  gardener  or  of  a  groom.  Sometimes  the  reverend  man  nailed 
up  the  apricots,  and  sometimes  he  curried  the  coach  horses.  He  cast  up 
the  farrier's  bills.  He  walked  ten  miles  with  a  message  or  a  parcel.  If  he 
was  permitted  to  dine  with  the  family,  he  was  expected  to  content  himself 
with  the  plainest  fare.  He  might  fill  himself  with  the  corned  beef  and  the 
carrots  ;  but  as  soon  as  the  tarts  and  cheese-cakes  made  their  appearance  he 
quitted  his  seat,  and  stood  aloof  till  he  was  summoned  to  return  thanks  for 
the  repast,  from  a  great  part  of  which  he  had  been  excluded." — Macaulay. 

The  principle  of  which  this  is  an  illustration  has  already 
been  discussed  and  explained  in  connection  with  the  figure 
exemplum.  It  only  remains  to  point  out  in  this  place  the 
bearing  which  this  passage  has  on  the  present  subject.  The 
general  statement  here  is  that  the  greater  part  of  the  clergy 
were  mere  menial  servants ;  and  this  is  explained  and  main- 
tained by  a  number  of  details  which  in  themselves  would  be 
deemed  trivial,  but  which,  when  assembled  together  and  pre- 
sented as  examples,  are  full  of  convincing  force. 

§  249.   ALLUSION. 

2.  In  the  following  passage  the  theme  is  illustrated  by  means 
of  allusion  : 

"  All  human  beauty  is  but  skin-deep,  and  scarcely  that.     A  little  rough- 


228  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

ening  of  the  cuticle  will  mar  the  direst  face,  and  change  beauty  to  hideous- 
ness.  What  fearful  irony  leers  upon  us  from  the  human  skull.  This  was 
the  head,  this  the  divine  countenance  of  some  Helen,  some  Aspasia  or 
Cleopatra ;  some*  Agnes  of  Meran  or  Mary  of  Scotland ;  on  whose  eyelids 
hung  the  destinies  of  nations  ;  for  whose  lips  the  lords  of  the  earth  thought 
the  world  well  lost ;  from  whose  lineaments  painters  drew  their  presentment 
of  the  Queen  of  Heaven."— Hedge. 

In  the  enumeration  of  names  there  is  an  historical  allusion, 
while  in  the  phrases  "  lords  of  the  earth,"  "  world  well  lost," 
are  literary  allusions  to  well-known  passages  in  Horace  and 
Shakespeare.  This  passage  is  immediately  followed  by  an- 
other which  illustrates  by  quotation  : 

"  The  saying  of  the  poet,  *  A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever,'  is  true  only 
when  predicated  of  the  image  in  the  mind,  and  of  intellectual  contemplation. 
The  beauty  of  things  is  a  phantom ;  the  enjoyment  the  senses  have  of  it  a 
slippery  illusion." 

Quotation  is  elegantly  used  for  purposes  of  illustration  in 
the  opening  of  Thackeray's  lecture  on  Goldsmith  : 

"Jet^  sur  cette  boule 
Laid  chetif  et  souffrant, 
Etouffe  dans  la  foule 
Faute  d'etre  asse?  grand. 

"  Unc  plainte  touchante 
De  ma  bouche  sortit ; 
Le  bon  Dieu  me  dit :  chante, 
Chante,  pauvre  petit  I 

"  Chanter,  ou  je  m'abuse 
Est  ma  tache  ici  bas. 
Tous  ceux  qu'ainsi  j'amuse 
Ne  m'aimeront-ils  pas?" 

"  In  those  charming  lines  of  Beranger,  one  may  fancy  described  the  ca- 
reer, the  sufferings,  the  genius,  the  gentle  nature  of  Goldsmith,  and  the  es- 
teem in  which  we  hold  him.  Who  of  the  millions  whom  he  has  amused 
doesn't  love  him  ?  To  be  the  most  beloved  of  English  writers,  what  a  title 
is  that  for  a  man  !" — Thackeray. 

§   250.    COMPARISON    AND    METAPHOR. 

3.  The  subject  will  be  found  illustrated  by  both  of  these  figures 
in  the  following  exquisite  passage  by  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  : 

"  Did  you  never  in  walking  in  the  fields  come  across  a  large  flat  stone, 
which  had  lain,  nobody  k-nows  how  long,  just  where  you  found  it,  with  the 


The  Illustrative  Style,  229 

grass  forming  a  little  hedge,  as  it  were,  all  round  it  close  to  its  edges  ?  and 
have  you  not,  in  obedience  to  a  kind  of  feeling  that  told  you  it  had  been  ly- 
ing there  long  enough,  insinuated  your  stick  or  your  foot  or  your  fingers 
under  its  edge,  and  turned  it  over  as  a  housewife  turns  i  cake,  when  she 
says  to  herself,  '  It's  done  brown  enough  by  this  time.'  What  an  odd  reve- 
lation, and  what  an  unforeseen  and  unpleasant  surprise  to  a  small  commu- 
nity, the  very  existence  of  which  you  had  not  suspected,  until  the  sudden 
dismay  and  scattering  among  the  members  produced  by  your  turning  the 
old  stone  over  !  Blades  of  grass  flattened  down,  colorless,  matted  together, 
as  if  they  had  been  bleached  and  ironed ;  hideous  crawling  creatures,  some 
of  them  coleopterous,  or  horny-shelled — turtle-bugs  one  wants  to  call  them  ; 
some  of  them  softer,  but  cunningly  spread  out  and  compressed  like  Lepine 
watches  (nature  never  loses  a  crack  or  a  crevice,  mind  you,  or  a  joint  in  a 
tavern  bedstead,  but  she  always  has  one  of  her  flat-pattern  live  time-keepers 
to  slide  into  it) ;  black,  glossy  crickets,  with  their  long  filaments  sticking  out 
like  the  whips  of  four-horse  stage-coaches  ;  motionless  slug-like  creatures; 
young  larvae,  perhaps  more  horrible  in  their  pulpy  stillness  than  even  in  the 
infernal  wriggle  of  maturity !  But  no  sooner  is  the  stone  turned,  and  the 
wholesome  light  of  day  let  in  upon  this  compressed  and  blinded  community 
of  creeping  things,  than  all  of  them  which  enjoy  the  luxury  of  legs — and 
some  of  them  have  a  good  many — rush  round  wildly,  butting  each  other  and 
everything  in  their  way,  and  end  in  a  general  stampede  for  underground  re- 
treats from  the  region  poisoned  by  sunshine.  Next  year  you  will  find  the 
grass  growing  tall  and  green  where  the  stone  lay  ;  the  ground-bird  builds  her 
nest  where  the  beetle  had  his  hole ;  the  dandelion  and  the  buttercup  are 
growing  there,  and  the  broad  fans  of  insect  angels  open  and  shut  over  their 
golden  disks  as  the  rhythmic  waves  of  blissful  consciousness  pulsate  through 
their  glorified  being. 

"  The  stone  is  ancient  error.  The  grass  is  human  nature,  borne  down 
and  bleached  of  all  its  color  by  it  The  shapes  which  are  found  beneath  are 
the  crafty  beings  that  thrive  in  darkness,  and  the  weaker  organisms  kept 
helpless  by  it.  He  who  turns  the  stone  over  is  whosoever  puts  the  staff  of 
truth  to  the  old  lying  incubus,  no  matter  whether  he  do  it  with  a  serious 
face  or  a  laughing  one.  The  next  year  stands  for  the  coming  time.  Then 
shall  the  nature  which  had  lain  blanched  and  broken  rise  in  its  full  stature 
and  native  hues  in  the  sunshine.  Then  shall  God's  minstrels  build  their 
nests  in  the  hearts  of  a  new-born  humanity.  Then  shall  beauty,  divinely 
taking  outlines  and  color,  light  upon  the  souls  of  men,  as  the  butterfly — 
image  of  the  beatified  spirit  rising  from  the  dust — soars  from  the  shell  that 
held  a  poor  crub,  which  would  never  have  found  wings  had  not  the  stone 
been  lifted." 

§  251.    ANECDOTE. 

In  the  following  passage  illustration  is  made  by  means  of 
anecdote  : 

"  I  hold  old  Johnson  to  be  the  great  supporter  of  the  British  monarchy 
and  Church  during  the  last  age.  .  .  .  Johnson  was  revered  as  a  sort  of  oracle, 
and  the  oracle  declared  for  Church  and  king.     What  a  humanity  the  old 


230  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

man  had  !  He  was  a  kindly  partaker  of  all  honest  pleasures  ;  a  fierce  foe 
to  all  sin,  but  a  gentle  enemy  to  all  sinners.  '  What,  boys  !  are  you  for  a 
frolic  ?'  he  cries,  when  Topham  Beauclerc  comes  and  wakes  him  up  at  mid- 
night. '  I'm  with  you.'  And  away  he  goes,  tumbles  on  his  homely  old 
clothes,  and  trundles  through  Covent  Garden  with  the  young  fellows. 
When  he  used  to  visit  Garrick's  Theatre,  and  had  *  the  liberty  of  the  scenes,' 
he  says,  '  All  the  actresses  knew  me,  and  dropped  me  a  courtesy  as  they 
passed  to  the  stage.'  That  would  make  a  pretty  picture  ;  it  is  a  pretty 
picture  in  my  mind,  of  youth,  folly,  gayety,  tenderly  surveyed  by  wisdom's 
merciful,  pure  eyes." — Thackeray. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

THE  EPIGRAMMATIC  STYLE. 
§   252.    EPIGRAMMATIC    STYLE. 

Another  style  associated  with  vivacity  is  that  which  is  called 
the  epigrammatic. 

By  this  is  meant  a  style  which  resembles  that  of  an  epigram. 
An  epigram  is  a  short  poem  or  sentence,  applied  to  some  per- 
son or  thing,  and  ending  in  an  ingenious  point  or  witty  sting, 
as  in  the  following  examples: 

♦'  Whilst  Butler,  needy  wretch,  was  yet  alive, 
No  generous  patron  would  a  dinner  give ; 
See  him  when  starved  to  death,  and  turned  to  dust. 
Presented  with  a  monumental  bust. 
The  poet's  fate  is  here  in  emblem  shown, 
He  asked  for  bread,  and  he  received  a  stone." 

■*■  Seven  Grecian  cities  strove  for  Homer  dead. 
Through  which  the  living  Homer  begged  his  bread." 

The  characteristics  of  the  epigrammatic  style  are — compari- 
son, metaphor,  allusion,  and  above  all  antithesis. 

§   253.    IN    POETRY. 

Pope  surpasses  all  English  poets  in  this  respect ;  nearly  all 
of  his  poetry  being  written  in  the  epigrammatic  style  : 

"  Who  sees  with  equal  eye,  as  Lord  of  all, 
A  hero  perish,  or  a  sparrow  fall ; 
Atoms  or  systems  into  ruin  hurled ; 
And  now  a  bubble  burst,  and  now  a  world." 


The  Epigrammatic  Style.  231 

"Vice  is  a  monster  of  so  frightful  mien, 
As,  to  be  hated,  needs  but  to  be  seen ; 
Yet  seen  too  oft,  familiar  with  her  face, 
We  first  endure,  then  pity,  then  embrace." 

"Or  ravished  with  the  whistling  of  a  name. 
See  Cromwell  damned  to  everlasting  fame." 

§  254.    IN   PROSE. 

Among  prose  writers,  Bacon,  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  and  Emer- 
son are  epigrammatic  beyond  all  others. 

"  On  him  who  scorned  the  world,  as  he  said,  the  scorned  world  wreaks  its 
revenge.  He  that  despiseth  small  things,  will  perish  by  little  and  little. 
Goethe's  Tasso  is  very  likely  to  be  a  pretty  fair  historical  portrait,  and  that 
is  true  tragedy.  It  does  not  seem  to  me  so  genuine  grief  when  some  tyran- 
nous Richard  III.  oppresses  and  slays  a  score  of  innocent  persons,  as  when 
Antonio  and  Tasso,  both  apparently  right,  wrong  each  other." — Emerson. 

"♦  What  hath  he  done?'  is  the  divine  question  which  searches  men  and 
transpierces  every  false  reputation.  A  fop  may  sit  in  any  chair  of  the  world, 
nor  be  distinguished  for  his  hour  from  Homer  and  Washington  ;  but  there 
can  never  be  any  doubt  concerning  the  respective  ability  of  human  beings 
when  we  seek  the  truth.  Pretension  may  sit  still,  but  cannot  act.  Preten- 
sion never  feigned  an  act  of  real  greatness.  Pretension  never  wrote  an 
Iliad,  nor  drove  back  Xerxes,  nor  Christianized  the  world,  nor  abolished 
slavery."— Emerson. 

The  style  of  Macaulay  may  also  be  called  epigrammatic  : 

"  The  sovereign  whom  James  most  resembled  was,  we  think,  Claudius 
Caesar.  Both  had  the  same  feeble  and  vacillating  temper  ;  the  same  child- 
ishness ;  the  same  coarseness ;  the  same  poltroonery.  Both  were  men  of 
learning.  Both  wrote  and  spoke,  not  indeed  well,  but  still  in  a  manner  in 
which  it  seems  almost  incredible  that  wen  so  foolish  should  have  written  or 
spoken." 

"The  regent  was  in  many  respects  the  facsimile  of  our  Charles  the  Sec- 
ond. Like  Charles,  he  was  a  good-natured  man,  utterly  destitute  of  sensi- 
bility. Like  Charles,  he  had  good  natural  talents,  which  a  deplorable  indo- 
lence rendered  useless  to  the  state.  Like  Charles,  he  thought  all  men  cor- 
rupt and  indolent ;  and  yet  did  not  dislike  them  for  being  so.  His  opinion 
of  human  nature  was  Gulliver's ;  but  he  did  not  regard  human  nature  with 
Gulliver's  horror.  He  thought  that  he  and  his  fellow-creatures  were  Yahoos ; 
and  he  thought  a  Yahoo  a  very  agreeable  kind  of  animal." 

"The  Castilian  of  those  times  was  to  the  Italian  what  the  Roman  in  the 
days  of  the  greatness  of  Rome  was  to  the  Greek.  The  conqueror  had  less 
ingenuity,  less  taste,  less  delicacy  of  perception  than  the  conquered  ;  but  far 
more  pride,  firmness,  and  courage,  a  more  solemn  demeanor,  a  stronger 
sense  of  honor." 


232  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Burke's  style  is  full  of  epigrammatic  passages : 

"  I  would  rather  sleep  in  the  corner  of  a  little  country  churchyard  than 
in  the  tomb  of  the  Capulets." 

"  The  blood  of  man  should  never  be  shed  but  to  redeem  the  blood  of  man. 
It  is  well  shed  for  our  family  ;  for  our  friends  ;  for  our  God ;  for  our  coun- 
try ;  for  our  kind.     The  rest  is  vanity  ;  the  rest  is  crime." 

"  Nobility  is  a  graceful  ornament  to  the  civil  order.  It  is  the  Corinthian 
capital  of  polished  society." 

Epigrammatic  passages  abound  in  the  writings  of  Oliver 
Wendell  Holmes : 

"  Boston  State  House  is  the  hub  of  the  solar  universe.  You  couldn't 
pry  that  out  of  a  Boston  man  if  you  had  the  tire  of  all  creation  straighten- 
ed out  for  a  crow-bar." 

The  following  is  from  Daniel  Webster's  speech  on  Hamil- 
ton : 

"  He  smote  the  rock  of  the  national  resources,  and  abundant  streams  of 
revenue  gushed  forth.  He  touched  the  dead  corpse  of  public  credit,  and  it 
sprang  upon  its  feet." 

§   255.    FAULTS    ARISIN(3    FROM    THE    EPIGRAMMATIC    STYLE. 

The  epigrammatic  style  is  highly  artificial,  and  although  it  is 
used  with  great  success  by  writers  of  genius,  its  employment  is 
nevertheless  attended  with  peculiar  disadvantages,  the  chief  of 
which  is  the  tendency  to  sacrifice  truth  for  the  sake  of  effect. 
Where  the  writer  is  perpetually  balancing  word  against  word, 
or  seeking  after  novelties  in  thought  and  expression,  or  striving 
to  give  to  every  sentence  its  own  individual  point  and  sparkle, 
it  is  not  surprising  that  he  should  give  to  many  things  an  un- 
due importance,  and  end  with  throwing  around  his  work  a 
general  air  of  extravagance. 

In  poetry  this  danger  is  far  less  than  in  prose,  for  poetry  is 
confessedly  in  some  sort  one  of  the  fine  arts;  and  being  an 
art,  its  movement  is  made  in  accordance  with  many  artificial 
rules.  The  license  which  is  present  in  poetry  does  not  exist 
in  prose.  The  poet,  like  the  artist,  may  study  effects;  he  may 
aim  after  the  ideal  rather  than  literal  fact;  and  thus  it  may  be 
a  necessity  for  him  to  transcend  the  actual  truth  of  things. 
But  nothing  of  this  kind  is  open  to  the  prose  writer.  Rhetoric, 
even  as  belles-lettres,  cannot  go  so  far  as  this,  and  knows 
nothing  of  that  license  which  poetry  enjoys.     And  thus,  while 


The  Epigrammatic  Style.  233 

the  poet  may  indulge  freely  in  hyperbole,  the  prose  writer  must 
be  very  guarded  in  his  dealings  with  extravagant  language. 

An  illustration  of  this  extravagance  can  be  found  in  the 
character  of  Napoleon  by  Charles  Phillips,  from  which  a  few 
sentences  may  be  taken  as  examples  of  the  whole  : 

"  There  was  no  creed  that  he  did  not  profess,  there  was  no  opinion  that 
he  did  not  promulgate." 

"  Nature  had  no  obstacles  that  he  did  not  surmount,  space  no  opposition 
that  he  did  not  spurn." 

"Amid  all  these  changes  he  stood  immutable  as  adamant." 

"  The  victorious  veteran  glittered  with  his  gains,  and  the  capital,  gorgeous 
with  the  spoils  of  art,  became  the  miniature  metropolis  of  the  universe." 

All  this  is  very  extravagant  and  very  tawdry,  particularly  the 
last  sentence  —  "victorious  veteran,"  "glittered  with  gains," 
"miniature  metropolis." 

The  imitators  of  Emerson,  now  happily  less  numerous  than 
formerly,  afford  examples  of  the  evil  results  which  appear  when 
such  a  style  is  employed  by  those  who  think  that  in  imitating 
the  form  of  a  master  they  may  rival  the  master  himself  Emer- 
son may  move  with  ease  and  grace  under  his  panoply ;  but  the 
feeble  army  of  imitators  fall  beneath  the  load.  Out  of  this  af- 
fectation of  a  most  difficult  style  there  arises  the  great  fault  of 
phrase-making. 

The  French  are  fond  of  antithesis,  and  the  epigrammatic 
style  is  far  more  common  with  them  than  with  us.  With  them 
it  has  been  carried  to  a  great  excess,  and  the  faults  of  extrava- 
gance and  phrase-making  are  common.  Even  men  of  genius 
are  not  free  from  these  faults,  for  Victor  Hugo,  in  his  later 
works,  has  shown  far  more  of  the  extravagance,  the  puerility, 
and  the  absurdity  of  the  epigrammatic  style  than  of  its  beauty 
and  force.  In  his  address  to  the  Prussians  at  the  time  of  the 
siege  of  Paris  he  gave  utterance  to  the  ravings  of  a  madman; 
but  the  popular  taste  seemed  to  support  him ;  for  M.  Ollivier, 
in  the  agonies  of  France,  could  find  nothing  better  to  give  to 
his  countrymen  than  a  series  of  miserable  phrases,  where  the 
clink  and  tinkle  of  childish  rhymes  and  weak  antitheses  were 
sent  forth  to  prepare  a  nation  for  its  most  tremendous  conflict : 

♦*  To  Prussian  audacity  le^  us  oppose  French  tenacity." 


234  Elements  of  EJietoric. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

OTHER    QUALITIES    OF    STYLE    ASSOCIATED    WITH 
VIVACITY. 

§  256.    CLASSICAL   STYLE. 

The  term  "  classical"  is  sometimes  applied  to  a  style  which 
abounds  in  allusions  to  the  classical  literature  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  or  to  events  in  their  history.  Such  allusions  are  fre- 
quent in  the  writings  of  Burke,  and  may  be  illustrated  by  the 
following  passage : 

"  It  is  the  spirit  of  the  English  Constitution  which,  infused  through  the 
mighty  mass,  pervades,  feeds,  unites,  invigorates,  vivifies  every  part  of  the 
empire,  even  down  to  its  minutest  member." 

The  allusion  here  is  to  the  well-known  lines  of  Virgil : 

"  Spiritus  intus  alit ;  totamque  infusa  per  artus 
Mens  agitat  molem,  et  magno  se  corpore  miscet." 

But  a  truer  definition  of  the  classical  style  is  that  which 
makes  it  such  a  style  as  is  most  in  accordance  with  the  genius 
of  the  language,  and  serves  to  exhibit  its  highest  qualities. 

Addison,  Goldsmith,  and  Irving;  De  Quincey,  Hazlitt,  and 
Thackeray,  are  classical  writers  of  English. 

If  we  compare  Thackeray  with  Dickens,  we  shall  find  that 
the  former  writes  the  best  English,  and  is  distinguished  by  a 
truly  classical  style,  namely,  one  which  is  in  accordance  with 
the  best  standards,  and  one  which  Addison  himself  might  have 
envied,  while  the  other  is  full  of  faults  and  inaccuracies,  which, 
even  though  his  wonderful  genius  may  triumph  over  them,  will 
yet  prevent  him  from  ranking  with  the  great  masters.  If  we 
compare  De  Quincey  with  Carlyle,  we  shall  find  that  the  latter 
has  chosen  for  himself  a  form  of  expression  which,  though  full 
of  energy,  is  yet  decidedly  eccentric  and  unfit  for  imitation ; 
while  the  former  may  be  said  to  have  attained  the  first  rank  in 
the  variety  and  splendor  of  his  rhetoric,  in  the  purity  of  his 


Style  Associated  zvith  Vivacity.  235 

English,  and  in  the  instructive  lessons  which  his  style  may 
convey  to  all  who  study  it. 

§   257.    THE   SUGGESTIVE   STYLE. 

The  suggestive  style  indicates  that  form  of  writing  in  which 
statements  are  made  in  an  indirect  way  by  means  of  hints,  im- 
plications, or  suggested  meanings.  It  is  often  associated  with 
innuendo  and  double  entendre;  and  it  enters  into  the  nature 
of  the  figures  metalepsis  and  significatio.  But  its  more  ex- 
tended use  in  literature  goes  beyond  these  limited  depart- 
ments. Passages  full  of  suggested  meaning  are  found  in  all 
the  more  concise  writers,  for  true  conciseness  is  that  in  which 
the  sentence  shall  convey  to  the  mind  something  more  than 
what  is  really  expressed;  but  a  suggestive  style  need  not  be 
a  concise  one.  Gibbon  employs  this  style  more  largely  than 
any  other  writer. 

The  uses  of  this  style  are  various,  and  may  be  summed  up 
as  follows : 

1.  To  give  greater  effect  to  statements.  A  suggested  mean- 
ing often  has  greater  force  than  a  direct  statement.  It  comes 
as  a  new  discovery,  made  independently  by  the  mind  of  the 
reader ;  and  men  are  more  impressed  by  that  which  they  find 
out  for  themselves  than  by  that  which  is  directly  told  them.  j 

"  The  Latin  clergy,  who  erected  their  tribunal  on  the  ruins  of  the  civil 
law,  have  modestly  accepted,  as  the  gi(t  of  Constantine,  the  independent 
jurisdiction  which  was  the  fruit  of  time,  of  accident,  and  of  their  own  in- 
dustry,"-—Gibbon. 

Here  there  is  a  suggestion  of  the  donation  of  Constantine, 
and  of  the  great  use  made  of  this  and  of  other  forgeries  during 
the  Middle  Ages. 

"The  grateful  applause  of  the  clergy  has  consecrated  the  memory  of  a 
prince  who  indulged  their  passions  and  promoted  their  interest." — Gibbon. 

Here  there  is  a  suggestion  that  the  clergy  were  mere  time- 
servers  and  flatterers. 

2.  Sometimes  this  style  is  employed  so  as  to  make  indirect 
mention  of  men  and  things,  which  are  thereby  presented  in  a 
more  striking  light  : 

**  Were  I  ambitious  of  any  other  patron  than  the  public,  I  would  inscribe 

L 


\ 


236  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

this  work  to  a  statesman,  who  in  a  long,  a  stormy,  and  at  length  an  unfor- 
tunate administration,  had  many  political  opponents,  almost  without  a  per- 
sonal enemy ;  who  has  retained  in  his  fall  from  power  many  faithful  and 
disinterested  friends ;  and  who,  under  the  pressure  of  severe  infirmity,  en- 
joys the  lively  vigor  of  his  mind  and  the  felicity  of  his  incomparable  tem- 
per." 

In  this  passage  from  the  preface  to  his  great  history,  Gibbon 
implies  a  dedication,  and  by  this  description  draws  strong  at- 
tention to  Lord  North,  although  his  name  is  not  mentioned 
until  the  next  sentence. 

3.  Sometimes  the  suggestion  is  made  by  silence,  or  the  af- 
fectation of  silence : 

"  I  was  going  to  awake  your  justice  towards  this  unhappy  part  of  our  fel- 
low-citizens by  bringing  before  you  some  of  the  circumstances  of  the  plague 
of  hunger.  Of  all  the  calamities  which  beset  and  waylay  the  life  of  man, 
this  is  one  which  comes  the  nearest  to  our  heart,  and  in  which  the  proudest 
of  us  all  feels  himself  to  be  nothing  more  than  he  is — but  I  find  myself  un- 
able to  manage  it  with  decorum  ;  these  details  are  of  a  species  of  horror  so 
nauseous  and  disgusting ;  they  are  so  degrading  to  the  sufferers  and  the 
hearers ;  they  are  so  humiliating  to  human  nature  itself,  that  in  better 
thoughts  I  find  it  advisable  to  throw  a  pall  over  this  hideous  object,  and  to 
leave  it  to  your  general  conceptions." — Burke. 

4-  In  many  passages  of  poetry  the  suggestion  is  full  of  force 
and  significance. 

An  example  may  be  found  in  these  lines  of  Shelley : 

"  O  World  !     O  Life  !     O  Time  ! 
On  whose  last  steps  I  climb^ 
Trembling  at  that  where  I  had  stood  before — 
When  will  return  the  glory  of  your  prime  ? 
No  more —    Oh,  never  more ! " 

Forms  of  suggestion  like  the  following,  by  Kingsley,  are  of 
frequent  occurrence: 

"The  rolling  mist  came  down  and  hid  the  land — 
And  never  home  came  she." 

There  is  much  tender  pathos  in  the  suggestion  conveyed  by 
the  last  line  of  the  following  : 

"Ah  me  !  how  quick  the  days  are  flitting; 
I  mind  me  of  a  time  that's  gone. 
When  here  I'd  sit,  as  now  I'm  sitting. 
In  this  same  place — but  not  alone. 


Style  Associated  with  Vivacity.  2^7 

A  fair  young  form  was  nestled  near  me, 

A  dear,  dear  face  looked  fondly  up. 
And  sweetly  spoke,  and  smiled  to  cheer  me — 

There's  no  one  now  to  share  my  cup." — Thackeray. 

5.  A  certain  class  of  quasi-allegorical  poems  may  be  consid- 
ered as  examples  of  this  style ;  as  the  well-known  ballads  of 
Uhland,  some  of  Longfellow's,  and  nearly  all  of  Poe's.  In 
these  there  is  an  undertone  of  mysticism  which  gives  a  deep 
suggested  meaning. 

§  258.    OTHER   TERMS   APPLIED   TO   STYLE. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  other  terms  are  often  applied  to 
style,  which  are  here  briefly  enumerated  : 

Interesting. — A  general  expression  referring  to  an  author's 
ability  to  excite  attention.  It  is  particularly  applicable  to 
books  of  travel,  and  the  letters  of  ordinary  correspondents. 
The  term  refers  rather  to  the  subject-matter  than  to  the 
style. 

Popular. — This  applies  to  a  style  which  is  pleasing  to  the 
multitude.  In  this,  as  in  the  preceding  one,  there  may  be 
great  faults,  yet  there  must  be  at  least  some  degree  of  vivac- 
ity. The  term  "popular  author"  is  the  best  exponent  of  the 
popular  style. 

Fluent. — By  this  is  meant  a  ready  flow  of  words,  and  the  ex- 
hibition of  great  ease  in  composition.  It  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  "  affluent,"  which  in  our  present  usage  refers  to 
richness  and  copiousness  of  thought  and  diction ;  whereas  a 
fluent  style  too  often  tends  to  verbosity,  and  is  usually  charac- 
terized by  great  faults.  Cicero  and  Burke  are  affluent  writers ; 
but  any  one  is  fluent  who  can  compose  readily,  such  as  M.  F. 
Tupper,  Dr.  Gumming,  Alexander  Dumas,  or  other  voluminous 
writers. 

Franks  or  Open. — This  is  applied  to  writing  which  contains 
frequent  references  to  the  author's  personal  thoughts,  feelings, 
and  experiences.  It  is  the  exhibition  of  confidence  towards 
the  reader.     Sterne  and  Thackeray  afford  examples  of  this. 

Ingenuous. — A  style  characterized  by  candor  and  engaging 
simplicity,  with  naivete  of  expression.  The  best  example  of 
this  is  the  Essays  of  Elia. 

Racy. — A  style  full  of  vivacity,  with  novel  terms  of  thought, 


238  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

accompanied  by  wit  and  humor.  Lamb's  Elia  affords  examples 
of  this  also. 

Spirituelle. — Delicate  suggestiveness,  with  refined  imagery 
and  tender  grace  of  expression.  It  is  chiefly  applicable  to 
poetry.  Shelley  and  Keats  are  most  distinguished  for  this 
quality. 

Quaintness. — Simplicity  and  ingenuousness,  generally  accom- 
panied with  archaic  forms  of  speech.  It  is  found  chiefly  in  the 
older  writers  —  Mandeville,  Chaucer,  Bunyan,  Fuller,  Quarles, 
and  old  ballads. 

Naivete  is  much  like  quaintness,  being  a  certain  ingenuous 
simplicity  and  candor  in  the  utterance  of  very  simple  things  or 
the  narration  of  very  common  facts.  Archaic  forms  of  speech 
are  not  essential.  Although  there  need  be  no  consciousness 
of  humor  on  the  part  of  the  writer,  the  effect  of  naivete  is  often 
such  as  to  excite  this  sentiment  in  the  reader. 


PART   III. 

HARMONY    IN    STYLE. 


CHAPTER    I. 
EUPHONY. 


§  259.   HARMONY    IN   STYLE. 

y^TVlAKMOVY  is  that  qualtiy  in  style  which  gives  pleasure  to  the 
/^  ear  and  to  the  mind  by  the  use  of  euphonious  words,  rhythmical 
/       arrangements,  and  elegant  sentiments.     It  comprises  three  de- 
I        partments — euphony,  rhythm,  and  elegance. 
I  By  euphony  is  meant  such  a  combination  of  letters  and 

\      syllables  in  a  word  as  may  afford  a  pleasing  sound  appreciable 
V    to  the  ear. 
^  By  rhythm,  such  an  arrangement  of  words  as  may  have  a 
harmonious  and  musical  effect. 

By  elegance  is  meant  such  a  choice  and  arrangement  of 
words  as  shall  be  pleasing  to  the  cultivated  taste. 

This  subject  may  be  best  examined  by  considering  it  in 
relation,  first,  to  the  choice  of  words ;  and,  secondly,  to  the 
arrangement. 

Harmony  in  words  comprises  two  divisions:  first,  euphony; 
and,  secondly,  elegance. 

By  euphony  is  meant  such  a  combination  of  letters  and  syl- 
lables in  a  word  as  may  afford  a  harmonious  and  pleasing  sound 
which  is  appreciable  to  the  ear.  By  elegance  is  meant  such  a 
choice  and  arrangement  of  words  as  shall  be  pleasing  to  the 
cultivated  taste.  Euphony,  therefore,  appeals  to  the  ear  and 
elegance  to  the  taste  ;  the  one  refers  to  the  sound  of  words,  the 
other  to  their  signification. 


240  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

§  260.   EUPHONY   IN   DIFFERENT   LANGUAGES. 

In  all  languages  there  are  certain  sounds  that  are  sweet  and 
pleasant,  and  others  that  are  rough  and  disagreeable.  The 
most  agreeable  are  those  of  the  liquids  and  vowels ;  the  harsh- 
est the  gutturals  and  sibilants.  But  an  excess  of  softer  liquid 
and  vowel  sounds  is  injurious  to  euphony,  since  they  are  weak 
and  effeminate  ;  while  the  disproportionate  combination  of 
mutes  and  gutturals  produces  harshness  and  discord.  The 
truest  euphony  is  found  where  vowels  and  consonants  are  in 
equal  proportion  ;  and  the  languages  which  exhibit  this  in  the 
highest  degree  are  the  Greek  and  Latin. 

The  modern  European  languages  belonging  to  the  Latin 
family,  viz.,  the  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  French,  are 
all  euphonious,  though  differing  in  this  respect  among  them- 
selves. The  languages  of  the  Teutonic  stock  are  more  harsh. 
The  English  occupies  a  position  somewhere  between  these, 
since  to  a  Teutonic  stock  it  has  added  a  growth  of  Latin  words, 
by  which  it  has  been  influenced  directly  through  the  words 
themselves,  and  indirectly  through  the  effect  of  the  Latin  upon 
the  Teutonic. 

The  Enjriish  language  as  now  spoken  is  considered  more 
euphonious  than  those  of  the  Teutonic  stock,  but  less  so  than 
those  of  the  Latin  family.  Its  chief  fault  in  this  respect  is  the 
prevalence  of  the  hissing  "s"  sound.  It  has  been  stigmatized 
for  this  in  two  memorable  sayings.  The  Emperor  Charles  V., 
who  spoke  fluently  several  European  languages,  was  accustomed 
to  say  that  Spanish  was  the  language  of  gods ;  Italian  the  lan- 
guage of  lovers  ;  French  the  language  of  friends ;  English  the 
language  of  geese  ;  German  the  language  of  horses  ;  and  Bo- 
hemian the  language  of  devils.  Equally  contemptuous  in  his 
account  of  English  is  Lord  Byron,  who  calls  it : 

"  Our  harsh,  northern,  whistling,  grunting  guttural, 
Which  we're  obliged  to  hiss,  and  spit,  and  splutter  alL" 

Both  of  these  are  humorous  exaggerations,  but  they  serve  to 
indicate  the  English  "hiss."  With  this  exception,  it  would  not 
be  difficult  to  show  that  English  prose  is  quite  as  euphonious 
as  that  of  any  other  language. 

Poetry  in  English  is  more  euphonious  than  prose  can  pos- 


Euphony.  241 

sibly  be,  and  chiefly  because  it  can  rid  itself  better  of  the  hiss- 
ing sound.  Poetic  license  allows  the  use  of  a  very  important 
termination,  now  obsolete  in  literary  prose,  by  which  the  "s" 
sound  is  very  greatly  diminished.  This  is  the  termination  of 
the  third  person  present  in  verbs,  as  "  loveth  "  for  "  loves." 
Such  liberty  of  inversion  also  is  allowed,  and  such  an  extended 
choice  of  words,  that  the  highest  poetry  of  the  English  language 
may  be  said  to  exhibit  perfect  euphony.  No  Italian  verse  is 
more  smooth  and  soft  than  the  English  of  Spenser.  No  poet 
of  any  language  ever  wrought  out  more  musical  lines  than  those 
of  Tennyson  ;  and  few  have  approached  the  sounding  harmo- 
nies and  infinite  variety  which  we  find  in  Milton. 

§  261.    EUPHONY   IN    DIFFERENT   KINDS   OF   COMPOSITION. 

Euphony  differs  as  to  importance  in  the  various  kinds  of 
composition.  In  poetry  it  is  one  of  the  very  first  requisites, 
for  this  is  in  reality  a  fine  art,  and  the  poet,  like  the  musician, 
must  deal  with  the  effects  of  sound.  In  the  appeal  which 
poetry  makes  to  the  sense  of  the  beautiful,  smoothly  flowing 
verse  is  essential.  It  may  be  objected  that  some  poets,  nota- 
bly Browning,  pay  but  little  attention  to  euphony.  The  an- 
swer here  is  not  that  Browning  pays  little  attention  to  it,  but 
that  it  is  his  purpose  to  produce  poetry  of  firmer  tone  and 
stronger  sound  than  others.  The  music  is  there,  but  it  is  dif- 
ferent from  the  music  of  other  poets. 

In  oratory  euphony  is  of  great  importance,  for  here  it  affects 
both  speaker  and  hearer.  The  orator  must  concern  himself 
greatly  with  this  as  with  a  vital  matter ;  for  certain  sounds  are 
difficult  to  utter,  and  these  must  be  mastered ;  others  are  un- 
pleasant to  hear,  and  these  should  be  avoided.  The  example 
of  Demosthenes  in  struggling  with  the  impediments  of  articu- 
lation shows  how  an  earnest  speaker  may  deal  with  this  diffi- 
culty. Euphony  is  also  closely  associated  with  rhythm,  and  in 
the  greatest  orations  many  of  the  finest  and  most  effective  pas- 
sages have  been  set  forth  on  this  principle.  The  hearer  also 
feels  the  effect ;  for  spoken  words  always  show  most  plainly 
any  discordances  of  sound,  since  they  are  at  once  addressed  to 
the  ear.  The  reader  does  not  notice,  for  instance,  the  preva- 
lence of  the  hissing  "  s,"  but  with  some  speakers  an  audience 
finds  it  intolerable. 


242  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

When  we  consider  prose  in  general,  it  cannot  be  said  that 
euphony  is  of  any  very  great  value;  for  in  most  cases  books 
are  read  in  silence,  no  words  are  spoken,  and  its  presence  or 
absence  is  not  noticed.  Yet  even  here  it  is  as  well  not  to 
neglect  it,  and  it  is  always  best  to  secure  it  when  it  can  be 
attained  without  sacrificing  other  qualities  of  more  importance. 

§  262.   EXAMPLES   OF    EUPHONY. 

In  the  following  passages  there  are  examples  of  the  highest 
order  of  euphony,  and  the  reader  will  notice  the  very  large 
proportion  of  vowel  and  liquid  sounds : 

"  In  those  deep  solitudes  and  awful  cells, 
Where  heavenly  pensive  contemplation  dwells. 
And  ever-musing  melancholy  reigns." — Pope. 

"On  Susquehanna's  banks,  feir  Wyoming." — Campbell. 

"The  moan  of  doves  in  immemorial  elms. 
And  murmur  of  innumerable  bees." — Tennyson. 

•'  Heaven  opened  wide 
Her  ever-during  gates,  harmonious  sound, 
On  golden  hinges  turning." — Milton. 

"Airs,  vernal  airs. 
Breathing  the  smell  of  field  and  grove,  attune 
The  trembling  leaves,  while  universal  Pan, 
Knit  with  the  graces  and  the  hours  in  dance. 
Led  on  the  eternal  spring." — Milton. 

Milton's  descriptions  of  Eden  are  emulated  by  Tennyson  in 
a  passage  which  is  characterized  by  the  same  euphony : 

"  Me  rather  all  that  bowery  loneliness. 
The  brooks  of  Eden  mazily  murmuring, 
And  bloom  profuse  and  cedar  arches 
Charm  as  a  wanderer  out  in  ocean." 

Examples  in  prose  are  by  no  means  so  frequent,  but  the 
following  passage  exhibits  a  remarkable  assemblage  of  pure 
euphonious  sounds : 

"  The  voice  within  us  is  more  distinctly  audible  in  the  stillness  of  the 
place ;  and  the  gentler  affections  of  our  nature  spring  up  more  freshly  in 
its  tranquillity  and  sunshine — nurtured  by  the  healthy  principle  which  we 


Euphony.  243 

inhale  with  the  pure  air,  and  invigorated  by  the  genial  influences  which 
descend  into  the  heart  from  the  quiet  of  the  sylvan  solitude  around,  and 
the  soft  serenity  of  the  sky  above." — Longfellow. 

§  263.  VIOLATIONS   OF   EUPHONY    IN   THE   CASE   OF   VARIOUS 
LETTERS   AND   SYLLABLES. 

This  subject  will  be  more  fully  illustrated  by  considering  the 
ways  in  which  euphony  is  violated. 

1.  Where  too  many  consonants  are  crowded  together.  This 
is  not  produced  by  individual  words  so  much  as  by  certain 
collocations  of  words.  There  is  an  undeniable  roughness  in 
such  words  as  "conventiclers,"  "inextricable,"  "stretched," 
etc.;  but  the  real  difficulty  arises  when  these  are  united  with 
others  of  a  similar  nature,  as  "  stretched  through  ;"  "  the  best 
station  ;"  "  high-arched  church."  Many  of  the  difficult  com- 
binations of  letters  are  put  forth  in  the  form  of  playful  exercises 
in  articulation,  as  the  rapid  repetition  of  the  words  "  good 
blood  —  bad  blood;"  "Theophilus  Thistle,  the  successful  this- 
tle sifter."    This  is  illustrated  in  the  following  line — 

"Twas  thou  that  soothedst  the  rough,  rugg'd  bed  of  pain" — (Bowyer) 

quoted  by  De  Quincey,  who  says,  "It  seems  to  us  as  if 
Bowyer's  verses  ought  to  be  boiled  before  they  can  be  read." 

2.  The  hissing  sound.  This  is  more  prevalent  in  the  lan- 
guage than  formerly.  In  Old  English  many  plurals  were  in 
"  n,"  and  down  to  a  comparatively  recent  period  the  third  per- 
son singular  present  of  the  verb  ended  in  "  th,"  as  "loveth." 
Dr.  Campbell,  in  his  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  uses  this  form  in- 
variably. Now  it  is  obsolete  in  ordinary  prose,  and  both  of 
these  musical  terminations  have  changed  to  "s."  This  hissing 
sound  is  actually  more  prevalent  than  would  seem  from  a  mere 
cursory  examination,  for  in  its  hard  or  soft  form  it  exists  in  no 
less  than  five  different  letters — in  "c,"  which  is  sounded  like 
s  before  "e"  and  "i;"  in  "s"  itself;  in  "z;"  in  "x,"  which  is 
equal  to  "  ks ;"  and  in  "  t "  whenever  combined  with  "  ion," 
as  in  "  nation." 

3.  Where  the  accent  is  thrown  far  back.  The  English  allows 
of  this  to  a  greater  extent  than  other  languages,  none  of  which 
admit  of  the  accent  being  pushed  back  farther  than  the  antepe- 
nult. With  us  there  are  many  words  accented  like  the  following: 
"primarily,"  "cdrsorily,"  "summarily,"  " p^remptoriness,"  "ir- 

L2 


244  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

refragableness,"  "  indxplicableness."     Many  preachers  accent 
the  word  Deuteronomy  on  the  first  syllable. 

4.  When  the  same  syllable  is  repeated,  as  "  holily,"  "  lowlily," 
"farriery."  Thus  Thackeray,  shunning  this  fault,  says,  "She, 
too,  in  our  age  busies  herself  only  with  the  affairs  of  kings, 
waiting  on  them  obsequiously  and  stately.  "Statelily"  would 
be  intolerable. 

§  264.  VIOLATIONS  OF  EUPHONY  BY  THE  REPETITION  OF  WORDS. 

The  next  violation  of  euphony  is  to  be  found  in  the  careless 
repetition  of  the  same  word.  This  is  a  fault  of  very  frequent 
occurrence,  and  even  the  best  writers  fall  into  it  with  no  little 
frequency : 

"  The  effect  of  the  concluding  verb,  placed  where  it  w,  is  most  striking." 
— Whately. 

*•  Whichever  it  was,  it  was  equally  bad," 

"  They  exchanged  looks  of  fear  ;  they  looked  all  around  for  some  chance 
of  escape." 

*'  The  war  then  began,  and  great  calamities  befell  both  parties  in  the  course 
of  the  war." 

"  Their  amazement,  great  though  it  woj,  was  not  greater  than  that  of  the 
stranger." 

"He  then  became  king;  but  no  one  who  had  known  him  believed  that  he 
would  make  a  good  king." 

The  Conjunction  '■'•  and.^^ — Great  care  is  required  in  the  use  of 
connectives.  Words  and  clauses  must  all  be  joined  in  com- 
position ;  but  the  unwary  or  careless  writer  often  multiplies  the 
conjunction  "and"  to  an  extent  which  is  highly  ineuphonious : 

"  The  king  and  all  his  nobles,  and  all  that  belonged  to  the  palace,  fled, 
and  took  with  them  their  treasures  and  families,  and  sought  refuge  in  a 
strong  fortress ;  and  arriving  there  they  rested,  and  awaited  the  approach 
of  Heraclius  and  his  army." 

It  is  a  characteristic  of  Old-English  prose,  such  as  that  of 
Mandeville,  Chaucer,  and  Wycliffe,  to  repeat  the  "  and  "  to  ex- 
cess ;  but  at  the  present  day  such  repetition  is  awkward  and 
slovenly.  Such  a  sentence  as  the  above  may  be  corrected  in 
one  of  two  ways :  first,  by  substituting  other  connectives ;  and, 
secondly,  by  reconstructing  it  altogether. 

But. — This  word  is  often  used  with  equal  carelessness  : 


Euphony.  245 

"  But  the  Directory  is  not  only  generally  allowed  to  have  been  one  of  the 
weakest  and  most  discreditable  governments,  because  its  vices  were  dis- 
guised by  the  splendor  of  the  victories  won  by  the  generals  who  nominally 
obeyed  it ;  but  those  generals  well  knew  its  imbecility,  and  were  preparing 
its  ruin.  But,  though  if  France  is  to  have  a  republic,  it  must  be  a  republic 
with  a  president,  her  situation  is  such  as  enormously  to  aggravate  the  peril- 
ousness  of  the  ofl&ce." — Pall  Mall  Gazette. 

However : 

"  This,  however,  was  a  futile  attempt  He  did  not  despair,  however,  but 
tried  other  measures." 

Which  : 

"  The  road  by  which  they  travelled  was  the  same  one  which  had  been 
traversed  by  the  army  of  Hannibal." 

The  common  substitute  for  "which"  is  "that." 
That. — This  word  is  very  useful  as  an  additional  relative; 
yet  on  account  of  its  manifold  application  it  is  liable  to 
frequent  repetition.  It  has  three  different  characters :  first, 
a  conjunction  ;  second,  a  relative  ;  and,  third,  a  demonstrative. 
This  variety  of  meaning  is  illustrated  by  the  well-known  sen- 
tence : 

"  He  said  that  that  '  that '  that  that  man  considered,  was  not  that  *  that' 
that  he  mentioned." 

A  very  common  fault  is  the  following  construction : 

"  It  was  quite  evident  that  that  battle  was  decisive." 

*'  He  perceived  that  that  fire  was  the  work  of  an  incendiary." 

Brougham,  in  his  defence  of  Queen  Caroline,  says : 

•*  But  I  do  here  pour  forth  my  humble  supplications  at  the  throne  of 
mercy,  that  that  mercy  may  be  poured  down  upon  the  people." 

These  remarks  apply  also  to  cases  where  the  same  word  is 
used  under  different  forms,  such  as  are  produced  by  inflection 
or  composition  in  grammar  : 

'*  He  did  not  enter  the  house  until  after  the  rest  had  entered.^'' 
"  One  man  upon  their  diplomatic  list  thoroughly  qualified  in  soul  and 
qualities  for  the  service." 

'*  Which  again  gaining  strength  flows  onward." 

The  same  fault  is  seen  in  the  repetition  of  words  of  the  same 


246  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

sound,  though  they  may  be  of  different  meanings.  The  Eng- 
lish language  has  many  of  these,  which  are  set  down  in  every 
spelling-book— "  night,"  "knight;"  "red,"  "read;"  "altar," 
"  alter,"  etc.  They  exist  in  all  languages,  and  form  the  basis 
upon  which  are  founded  certain  figures  of  speech,  like  "  par- 
onomasia :" 

"  In  the  midst  of  this  scene  many  villages  with  their  picturesque  costumes 
might  be  seeny 

"  The  country  wore  an  appearance  of  prosperity,  and  did  not  show  many 
of  the  effects  of  a  great  and  exhaustive  war." 

This  fault  is  ridiculed  by  Juvenal  in  a  line  attributed  to 
Cicero  : 

"O  fortunatam  natam  me  consule  Romam." 

Which  Dryden  has  thus  paraphrased  : 

"  Fortune  fortuned  the  dying  notes  of  Rome, 
Till  I,  thy  consul  sole,  consoled  thy  doom." 

The  careless  repetition  of  words  of  similar  sound  is  a  fault 
of  the  same  kind  : 

"  He  felt  afraid  to  mingle  in  such  ^t./ray" 

"  The  costumes  of  the  people  might  seem  strange,  if  their  customs  were 
not  altogether  surprising." 

§  265.   REPETITION    OF   WORDS   SOMETIMES    NECESSARY. 

The  cases  here  mentioned  need  not  be  confounded  with 
those  which  have  already  been  considered  among  the  iterative 
figures.  In  the  former  it  is  a  fault  arising  from  carelessness; 
in  the  latter  it  is  an  ornament  of  style  deliberately  made  use  of. 

Even  where  there  is  no  question  of  figures,  the  writer  may 
find  it  necessary  to  repeat  a  word  for  the  sake  of  clearness, 
and  in  such  cases  the  rejection  of  a  good  word,  because  it  has 
just  been  used,  would  weaken  the  style  and  create  obscurity.. 
It  is  always  necessary  to  employ  the  most  precise  terms,  and 
mere  euphony  must  give  way  to  perspicuity.  There  are  not  a 
few  words  for  which  the  writer  can  find  no  proper  equivalents, 
and  he  must,  therefore,  employ  these  with  great  frequency,  or 
else  express  himself  in  a  vague  and  indefinite  manner.  In 
general,  where  any  given  word  is  best  adapted  to  convey  the 
writer's  meaning  it  should  be  used,  even  if  it  have  to  be  fre- 


Elegance,  247 

quently  repeated.  To  substitute  others  would  be  a  petty  peda- 
gogism,  leading  to  one  of  the^worst  of  literary  faults,  since  in 
the  endeavor  to  avoid  a  mere  inelegance  the  writer  would  be 
guilty  of  looseness  of  expression,  intolerable  circumlocutions, 
and  general  vagueness  of  meaning. 


CHAPTER  11. 

ELEGANCE. 
§  266.   ELEGANCE   DEFINED   AND   ILLUSTRATED. 

Elegance  in  Words. — By  this  is  meant  the  choice  of  such 
words  as  are  most  pleasing  to  the  correct  taste.  By  their 
meaning,  and  by  the  associations  connected  with  them,  they 
should  excite  within  the  mind  conceptions  of  the  beautiful,  and 
such  thoughts  as  are  mild,  tender,  and  peaceful.  With  the 
strong  force  of  energy,  with  the  keenness  and  penetrating 
power  of  vivacity,  such  a  quality  as  this  has  nothing  in  com- 
mon. It  never  can  rise  to  the  sublime,  and  can  never  reach 
as  far  as  the  pathetic. 

Shelley  and  Keats  are  pre-eminently  the  poets  of  the  beau- 
tiful ;  and  if  we  can  find  passages  which  are  free  from  that 
intense  passion  which  consumed  these  poets,  they  may  be  said 
to  exhibit  elegance  : 

"I  see  the  deep's  untrampled  floor 
With  green  and  purple  sea- weeds  strewn; 
I  see  the  waves  upon  the  shore 
Like  h'ght  dissolved  in  star-showers  thrown; 
I  sit  upon  the  sands  alone ; 
The  lightning  of  the  noontide  ocean 
Is  flashing  round  me,  and  a  tone 
Arises  from  its  measured  motion — 
How  sweet  did  any  heart  now  share  in  my  emotion !" 

—Shelley. 

"  I  cannot  see  what  flowers  are  at  my  feet, 
Nor  what  soft  incense  hangs  upon  the  boughs ; 
But  in  embalmed  darkness  guess  each  sweet 
Wherewith  the  seasonable  month  endows 


248  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  grass,  the  thicket,  and  the  fruit-tree  wild ; 
While  hawthorn,  and  the  pastoral  eglantine, 
Fast-fading  violets  covert  up  with  leaves. 

And  mid-May's  eldest  child, 
The  coming  musk-rose,  full  of  dewy  wine, 
The  murmurous  haunt  of  flies  on  summer  eves." — ^Keats. 

The  following  passage  may  serve  as  an  example  of  elegance 
in  prose  composition  : 

"  I  saw  the  valley  opening  at  the  farther  end,  and  spreading  forth  into  an 
immense  ocean,  that  had  a  huge  rock  of  adamant  running  through  the  midst 
of  it,  and  dividing  it  into  two  equal  parts.  The  clouds  still  rested  on  one 
half  of  it,  insomuch  that  I  could  discover  nothing  in  it ;  but  the  other  ap- 
peared to  me  a  vast  ocean  planted  with  innumerable  islands,  that  were  cov- 
ered with  fruits  and  flowers,  and  interwoven  with  a  thousand  little  shining 
seas  that  ran  among  them.  I  could  see  persons  dressed  in  glorious  habits, 
with  garlands  upon  their  heads,  passing  among  the  trees,  lying  down  by  the 
side  of  fountains  or  resting  on  beds  of  flowers;  and  could  hear  a  confused 
harmony  of  singing  birds,  falling  waters,  human  voices,  and  musical  instru- 
ments. Gladness  grew  on  me  upon  the  discovery  of  so  delightful  a  scene. 
I  wished  for  the  wings  of  an  eagle  that  I  might  fly  away  to  those  happy 
seats." — Addison. 

§  267.  VIOLATIONS   OF    ELEGANCE. 

Elegance,  like  euphony,  can  be  most  fully  considered  by 
observing  the  ways  in  which  it  is  violated.  These  are  very 
numerous,  and  it  will  only  be  necessary  in  this  place  to  notice 
the  most  conspicuous. 

§  268.   AFFECTATIONS. 

I.  Elegance  is  violated  in  the  first  place  by  various  affecta- 
tions. 

I  St.  Exclamations. — In  ordinary  composition  there  is  some- 
times an  affectation  of  feeling  in  the  use  of  ejaculations,  such 
as,  "oh!"  "alas!"  as— 

"  But  oh  !  who  can  tell  the  pangs  that  rend  the  heart !" 
"  Man  was  originally  created  pure  and  holy,  but  alas  !"  etc. 

The  interjection  should  be  used  but  sparingly,  and  then  only 
when  the  circumstances  fully  justify  its  use. 

2d.  Strong  Expressions. — Another  affectation  is  found  in  the 
use  of  expressions  that  are  stronger  than  the  subject  will  war- 
rant.   Those  writers  who  habitually  deal  in  extravagance  offend 


Elegance.  249 

the  cultivated  reader.  A  tendency  to  this  is  found  in  some  of 
the  political  writing  of  the  present  day,  and  too  often  in  the 
so-called  "Temperance"  literature,  where  a  good  cause  is  in- 
jured by  the  intemperance  of  its  advocates.  Intoxicating 
liquors  are  frequently  alluded  to,  in  an  off-hand  way,  as  "  liquid 
fire"  and  "distilled  damnation;"  those  who  deal  in  them  as 
"rumselling  miscreants "  or  " beetle-browed  murderers;"  and 
the  business  itself  as  "  the  infernal  traffic."  The  same  extrav- 
agant style  is  sometimes  found  in  ordinary  narrative ;  as — 

"  The  bloodthirsty  tyrant,  at  the  head  of  his  ferocious  legions,  advanced 
with  terrific  speed  into  the  midst  of  the  panic-stricken  people." 

3d.  Fine  Writing.— Thtxe.  is  also  the  affectation  of  what  is  con- 
sidered fine  writing,  resulting  in  a  style  full  of  weak  sentimen- 
talisms,  tawdry  epithets,  etc.  The  composition  is  stuffed  with 
such  phrases  as  "balmy  zephyr,"  "azure  skies,"  "heaving  bil- 
lows," "  soaring  aloft,"  "  experiencing  agony  too  great  for  ut- 
terance," and  all  the  claptrap  of  the  hysterical  school.  There 
are  circumstances  under  which,  in  accordance  with  the  hack- 
neyed phrase,  language  is  really  "  inadequate  to  express  one's 
feelings."  But  in  general  language  can  be  found  if  one  seeks 
for  it ;  and  the  best  way  to  succeed  is  to  reserve  all  fine  words, 
as  well  as  all  strong  words,  for  the  proper  occasions.  When 
a  writer  uses  high-flown  words  on  common  subjects,  he  will 
have  nothing  left  with  which  to  approach  elevated  themes. 
He  will  waste  all  his  resources ;  and  the  very  words  themselves, 
by  misuse,  will  cease  to  have  for  him  their  proper  meaning. 

§  269.   MANNERISM. 

2.  Another  violation  of  elegance  is  found  in  mannerism. 

This  is  the  habit  acquired  by  a  writer  of  using  certain  favorite 
words  or  phrases  too  frequently.  It  must  not  be  confounded 
with  "  manner,"  which  is  very  much  the  same  as  style,  and 
which  of  course  belongs  to  every  writer. 

Burke  was  fond  of  using  the  image  "  loosing  the  reins," 
"pouring  forth  the  reins,"  derived  from  "laxas  habenas,"  and 
"  effundere  habenas,"  of  Virgil.  His  habit  of  extravagant 
praise,  in  which  he  heaps  up  the  strongest  possible  assertions 
in  favor  of  his  subject,  is  liable  to  the  same  charge.  This  may 
be  illustrated  by  his  eulogy  on  Sheridan.     Macaulay's  frequent 


250  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

allusions  to  the  attainments  of  a  schoolboy  belong  to  the  same 
class.  His  mode  of  saying  that  certain  things  are  well  known 
is,  "  Every  schoolboy  knows  it."  Dickens  frequently  repeats 
some  pet  epithet  or  phrase.  Carlyle  loves  to  reiterate  favorite 
terms,  names,  and  sayings—"  the  eternities,"  "  the  infinities," 
"sublime,"  ''king  of  men  ;"  indeed,  he  surpasses  all  other  writ- 
ers in  this  respect ;  and  his  very  style,  so  elliptical  and  abrupt, 
is  of  itself  considered  by  some  as  a  mannerism,  but  from  such 
a  reproach  its  great  eloquence  and  vigor  must  fully  redeem  it. 
Emerson  uses  "shall"  where  other  writers  put  "will,"  "may," 
or  "  might ;"  he  is  fond  of  remote  allusions,  and  mentions  the 
Vedas  or  Brahma  where  other  writers  would  be  content  with 
more  familiar  documents  and  deities.  The  term  mannerism 
has  been  applied  to  Byron's  misanthropical  expressions ;  to 
Poe's  incessant  repetitions  and  echoes  of  words  ;  to  Words- 
worth's affectation  of  bald  literalness ;  to  Browning's  rough, 
abrupt  pauses  and  elaborate  obscurities.  Bulwer,  especially 
in  his  earlier  novels,  delighted  in  ringing  the  changes  on 
the  "  real "  and  the  "  ideal,"  and  Disraeli  filled  his  fictions 
with  pomp  and  splendor ;  and,  like  the  e.xhaustless  East, 
with  richest  hand,  showered  on  his  kings  barbaric  pearl  and 
gold. 

By  mannerism  is  not  meant  the  peculiar  dialect  or  form  of 
expression  which  a  writer  may  adopt,  but  the  excessive  use 
of  favorite  forms.  These,  though  excellent  when  used  moder- 
ately, become  a  blemish  when  used  too  frequently. 

§  270.  COLLOQUIALISMS. 

3.  Colloquialisms  have  a  place  in  certain  departments  of  lit- 
erature, namely,  familiar  and  humorous  writing ;  but  in  grave 
composition  they  are  objectionable.  They  consist  of  the  fol- 
lowing : 

ist.  Contractions  generally,  which  form  so  striking  a  dis- 
tinction between  conversational  and  literary  English ;  as, 
"I'm,"  for  "I  am;"  "I'm  not,"  "he's  going,"  "he  isn't," 
"we're,"  "you're,"  "theyW'  "didn't,"  "hasn't,"  "wouldn't." 

2d.  Various  expressions,  especially  vulgarisms  such  as 
"  most,"  for  "  almost ;"  "  likely,"  for  "  perhaps  ;"  as,  "  If  the 
farmer  has  likely  only  a  few  books  he  is  content." 

3d.  The  omission  of  the  relative  pronouns,  and  of  the  con- 


Elegance,  251 

junction  "  that."  In  grave  composition  it  is  generally  more 
elegant  to  express  these.  In  oratory,  however,  they  are  often 
omitted,  especially  during  the  heat  of  debate.  The  speeches 
of  Burke  and  Fox  show  many  instances  of  this :  as — 

.  "  Whether  he  really  believes  the  return  of  the  high-bailiflf  is  an  act  of 
conscience." — Fox. 

"  This  very  person,  insensible  of  the  rank  he  maintains." — Fox. 

"  The  honorable  gentleman  knows  full  well  that  all  I  am  saying  is  strictly 
true." — Burke. 

§  271.  SLANG. 

4.  Slang  is  closely  associated  with  the  colloquialism.  In  its 
origin  this  is  low  and  vulgar,  the  name  having  been  first  given 
to  the  jargon  of  gypsies  and  thieves.  Its  meaning  is  now  very 
widely  extended,  and  it  is  applied  to  all  words  peculiar  to  any 
set,  clique,  or  society  of  men.  Thus  we  hear  of  the  slang  of 
artists,  of  lawyers,  of  newspapers,  and  of  colleges. 

The  language  of  slang  has  become  indefinitely  enlarged, 
and  extends  to  all  degrees  of  respectability,  as  well  as  of  vul- 
garity. Slang  dictionaries  are  published,  containing  hundreds 
of  closely  printed  pages.  The  slang  of  the  upper  classes  is  as 
well  defined  and  as  pronounced  as  that  of  the  lower.  In  the 
former  case  they  are  almost  the  same  as  colloquialisms.  Such 
are — "to  feel  quite  upset,"  "to  feel  hipped,"  "no  end  of  fun," 
"  no  end  of  a  row,"  "  a  s^ll,"  "  to  be  sold,"  "  to  chaff,"  "  to 
bore,"  "  to  look  seedy,"  "  feel  seedy,"  "  an  old  bloke,"  "  a 
brick." 

Slang  words  may  be  used  in  certain  kinds  of  composi- 
tion : 

I  St.  Humorous  Writing. — This  field  is  large,  from  the  most 
delicate  raillery  to  the  broadest  ridicule ;  so  that  it  is  difficult 
to  say  what  is  not  allowable  here.  The  farce,  the  satire,  and 
the  comic  paper,  all  deal  fi-eely  in  slang.  The  only  guide  is 
good  taste.  Wit  and  humor  are  never  so  effective  as  when 
refined,  and  the  low  slang  of  coarse  writers  is  fit  only  for  the 
coarse-minded  and  vulgar. 

2d.  Familiar  Essays. — This  is  a  branch  of  literature  which 
has  risen  to  great  prominence,  and  in  which  men  of  great 
genius  have  given  forth  their  sentiments  to  the  world.  It  is 
a  departure  from  the  gravity  of  serious  and  formal  composition. 
It  admits  of  greater  ease  and  playfulness,  with  something  of 


252  Elements  of  Rlutoric. 

the  freedom  of  conversation.  Sterne  and  Thackeray  have  in- 
dulged in  this  style,  and  are  the  most  successful  of  those  who 
have  attempted  it.  Here  that  kind  of  slang  is  allowable  which 
is  used  in  good  society,  and  which  ranks  with  colloquialisms; 
as,  "  to  come  to  grief,"  *'  to  go  to  the  dogs,"  '*  to  go  to  grass," 
"  to  be  used  up,"  "  to  be  knocked  on  the  head." 

*•  To  write  a  book  or  an  article  in  either  country  (England  or  America) 
likely  to  injure  the  feelings  of  people  in  the  other,  is  now  considered  a 
rather  disreputable  thing  to  do.  In  England  it  is  not  considered  '  in  good 
form ;'  in  America  it  is  not  considered  as  either  '  a  smart  thing '  or  *  the 
straight  thing.'  The  literary  Bedouin,  seeing  this  state  of  things  at  home, 
is  reduced  to  the  painful  alternative  of  being  either  good-natured  or  silent" 
—Pall  Mall  Gazette. 

§  272.  CANT. 

5.  Cant  was  originally  applied  to  religious  subjects;  but, 
like  slang,  it  has  attained  a  more  extended  signification. 
There  is  now  not  only  religious  cant,  but  also  cant  political 
and  professional,  temperance  cant,  and  the  cant  of  the  news- 
papers. Of  these,  religious  cant  is  the  most  familiar.  It  con- 
sists of  the  use  of  the  language  of  Scripture,  or  the  phrases  and 
formulas  of  religion,  in  connection  with  the  affairs  of  every-day 
life.  It  implies  hypocrisy,  or  at  least  insincerity,  on  the  part 
of  the  speaker. 

Other  kinds  of  cant  consist  of  the  irreverent  application  of 
lofty  phrases,  the  familiar  use  of  high-sounding  maxims,  and 
the  like.  Thus,  political  cant  is  illustrated  by  such  expressions 
as  "  free  and  enlightened  citizen  ;"  "  great  and  glorious  coun- 
try ;"  "  truly  loyal ;"  "  liberty,  fraternity,  and  equality ;"  "  a  man 
and  a  brother;"  "glorious  constitution;"  "the  birthright  of  an 
Englishman  ;"  "  the  free  and  enlightened  American ;"  temper- 
ance cant,  by  "  the  glorious  cause  ;"  "  king  alcohol ;"  "  the 
poisonous  cup ;"  "  the  accursed  traffic ;"  newspaper  cant,  by 
"the  free  and  patriotic  press;"  "able  editor;"  "enlightened 
correspondent;"  here  the  reporters  are  "active;"  the  hotel 
clerks  "obliging;"  a  concert  comes  off  with  great  "^clat;"  a 
lecture,  if  stupid,  is  "  chaste ;"  and  if  pretentious,  is  "  eloquent." 

Cant  and  slang  are  often  confounded  ;  but  there  is  an  essen- 
tial difference  between  the  two,  which  can  be  very  simply  set 
forth.  Slang  is  the  elevation  of  what  is  low ;  cant,  the  degra- 
dation of  what  is  high. 


Elegance.  253 

Cant  is  always  offensive,  but  especially  religious  cant.  This 
offends  more  than  the  taste,  for  it  shocks  the  religious  sensi- 
bility and  the  sense  of  true  veneration.  Sometimes  a  preacher 
may  be  found  who,  instead  of  bringing  cant  into  common  life, 
introduces  slang  into  the  sacred  desk :  as — 

"  Give  me  two  live  men,  and  I'll  run  this  church." 

"  The  question  of  the  day,  my  brethren,  is  not '  How  are  your  poor  feet  V 
but  *  How  are  your  poor  souls  ?'  " 

§  273.   VULGARISMS. 

6.  Vulgarisms  of  all  kinds,  including  provincialisms  and  sole- 
cisms, are  gross  offences.  Most  of  these  need  not  be  named ; 
but  a  certain  class  of  affectations  come  under  this  head,  and 
deserve  a  brief  notice.  The  use  of  pretentious  words  is  vul- 
gar ;  as,  While  these  events  were  "  transpiring,"  for  "  occur- 
ring ;"  "  demise,"  for  "  death  ;"  "  eventuate  ;"  "  inaugurate  ;" 
"  reliable,"  for  "  trustworthy ;"  "  this  section  ;"  "  endorse,"  for 
"  approve." 

Sometimes  low  and  degrading  expressions  are  used  even  by 
the  best  writers.  Burke  never  shrank  from  saying  anything. 
For  example,  he  says : 

"  They  are  not  repelled,  through  a  fastidious  delicacy,  at  the  stench  of 
their  arrogance  and  presumption,  from  a  medicinal  attention  to  their  men- 
tal blotches  and  running  sores." 

This  might  have  been  less  disgusting  and  equally  strong. 
Of  the  same  nature  is  the  image  of  Lord  Chatham's  adminis- 
tration, "  pigging  together  in  the  same  truckle-bed  ;"  and  that 
still  more  famous  one  of  Mr.  Dundas,  with  his  East  India  bills, 
"  exposed  like  the  imperial  sow  of  augury." 


254  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  HARMONIOUS  ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS. 

§  274.    HARMONY   IN   THE   ARRANGEMENT   OF    WORDS    REQUIRES 
BOTH    EUPHONY  AND    ELEGANCE. 

We  have  next  to  consider  harmony  in  the  arrangement  of 
words. 

The  words  must  not  only  be  well  chosen,  but  they  must  also 
be  well  arranged;  otherwise  the  most  musical  collection  may 
be  inharmonious  in  the  general  effect. 

Hence  euphony  and  elegance  must  both  be  sought  after. 

Elegance  in  sentences  exists  where  the  words  are  well  chosen, 
and  so  arranged  as  to  gratify  the  taste. 

Euphony  in  sentences  exists  where  the  general  arrangement 
of  the  words  is  such  as  will  give  pleasure  to  the  ear,  and  will 
serve  to  adorn  the  sentiment. 

In  the  following  passage  from  Kinglake's  Eothen  the  words 
are  all  euphonious,  and  the  arrangement  is  full  of  harmony : 

"  The  mystery  of  holy  shrines  lies  deep  in  human  nature.  For  however 
the  more  spiritual  minds  may  be  able  to  rise  and  soar,  the  common  man 
during  his  mortal  career  is  tethered  to  the  globe  that  is  his  appointed  dwell- 
ing-place ;  and  the  more  his  affections  are  pure  and  holy,  the  more  they 
seem  to  blend  with  the  outward  and  visible  world.  For  men  strongly 
moved  by  the  Christian  faith  it  was  natural  to  yearn  after  the  scenes  of  the 
Gospel  narrative.  In  old  times  this  feeling  had  strength  to  impel  the  chiv- 
alry of  Europe  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  a  barren  and  distant  land ; 
and  although  in  later  days  the  aggregate  faith  of  the  nations  grew  chill,  and 
Christendom  no  longer  claimed  with  the  sword,  still  there  were  always 
many  who  were  willing  to  brave  toil  and  danger  for  the  sake  of  attaining  to 
the  actual  and  visible  Zion." 

There  are  several  topics  arising  out  of  this  subject  which  are 
worthy  of  attention.  These  refer  to  the  arrangement  of  words 
and  of  clauses,  and  will  be  considered  in  order. 


The  Harmonious  Arrangement  of  Words.       255 

§  275.    HARMONIOUS   SUCCESSION   OF   WORDS. 

I.  The  arrangement  of  words  must  be  so  made  as  to  con- 
duce to  harmony. 

I  St.  The  words  should  follow  in  harmonious  succession.  A 
good  example  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  following  passage : 

"  On  the  fifth  day  of  the  moon,  which,  according  to  the  custom  of  my  fore- 
fathers, I  always  keep  holy,  after  having  washed  myself  and  offered  up  my 
morning  devotions,  I  ascended  the  high  hills  of  Bagdad,  in  order  to  pass  the 
rest  of  the  day  in  meditation  and  prayer." — Addison. 

If  attention  be  paid  to  the  succession  of  words  in  this  sen- 
tence, it  will  be  found  that  they  all  flow  onward  with  smooth- 
ness and  euphony,  each  being  in  its  proper  place,  and  that  the 
pauses  are  so  disposed  as  to  contribute  in  the  highest  degree 
to  the  harmonious  effect  of  the  whole.  The  elegance  of  this 
construction  will  be  better  seen  by  contrasting  it  with  another 
passage  of  a  different  nature,  in  which  out  of  carelessness  the 
subject  is  protracted  through  several  awkward  clauses : 

'*  To  behold  the  little  band  emerging  from  the  mountain  passes,  moving 
quietly  on  till  by  numerous  additions  it  marches  forward  with  something  of 
the  appearance  of  an  armed  host,  which  again  gathering  fresh  strength  con- 
tinually enlarges,  and  we  look  on  a  mighty  army  driving  all  its  enemies  be- 
fore it,  or  watch  it  entering  in  triumph  the  capital  of  the  empire,  is  a  glori- 
ous sight." 

The  chief  thing  to  be  noticed  here  is  the  fault  by  which  the 
sense  is  held  in  suspense  throughout  the  whole  sentence,  until 
the  close  is  reached.  The  intervening  clauses  are  also  dealt 
with  in  a  careless  and  awkward  manner. 

§   276.    MODIFYING   WORDS. 

2d.  The  insertion  of  modifying  words  is  sometimes  made  in 
such  a  way  as  to  give  offence  to  the  cultivated  taste.  This 
will  be  explained  by  the  following  examples  : 

"  The  then  commercial  grandeur  of  England."— Burke. 

-  This  is  a  Greek  idiom,  not  an  English,  and  its  effect  is  un- 
pleasant to  the  ear. 

Mr.  Piazzi  Smith  writes  as  follows  : 

"The  interpretation  of  the  admittedly  on  all  hands  most  ancient  Great 
Pyramid." 


256  Elements  of  RJutoric, 

And  again  : 

"  The  eternity  of  dead  matter  philosophy." 

Such  construcrions  are  not  in  accordance  with  the  genius  of 
the  English  language. 

"  The  too  great  distance  of  the  city  prevented  him  from  arriving  on  the 
same  day." 

Better  say :  The  distance  of  the  city  was  too  great,  etc 

"  They  have  a  by  far  larger  population." 
Better  :  A  larger  population  by  far. 

§  277.    IMPERSONAL   CONSTRUCTIONS. 

3d.  Impersonal  constructions  are  sometimes  inelegant. 
These,  when  properly  used,  are  elegant  and  forcible :  as — 

"  It  is  gone  !  that  sensibility  of  principle,  that  chastity  of  honor,  which 
felt  a  stain  like  a  wound." — Burke. 

But  the  following  are  very  different : 

"  It  is  known  to  all  persons,  the  great  suffering  that  ensued  immediately 
after  the  declaration  of  war." 

"  It  made  great  disturbance,  that  action  of  his,  among  the  people  of  the 
district" 

§  278.    APPENDED   CLAUSES. 

4th.  Clauses  inserted  as  an  after-thought  generally  interfere 
with  the  harmonious  arrangement  of  sentences  :  as — 

"  Thus  by  this  campaign,  if  by  nothing  else,  he  showed  that  in  military 
genius  he  was  the  greatest  of  men — that  is,  at  least,  of  the  men  of  his  own 
age." 

"  Under  his  reign  England  was  more  prosperous  than  at  any  other  time 
in  the  Saxon  era,  and  this  may  even  be  favorably  compared  with  later  pe- 
riods, making  allowance,  of  course,  for  the  inferiority  of  the  world  generally 
— that  is,  in  civilization." 

In  these  sentences  there  is  a  natural  end,  after  which  some 
additional  thought  is  appended,  which  serves  to  give  the  whole 
an  air  of  incompleteness. 

§  279.    EXPLANATORY   WORDS. 

5th.  Too  many  explanatory  words  are  a  fault,  such  as  — 
"of  course,"  "that  is,"  "as  is  natural."  This  gives  an  air  of 
dislocation  to  the  whole  sentence,  and  not  unfrequently  de- 
stroys its  effect. 


The  Harmonious  Arrangement  of  Words.       257 

§   280.    PREPOSITIONS. 

6th.  Prepositions  are  sometimes  separated  from  the  words 
which  they  govern : 

"This  state  of  things  could  not  continue  long,  for  the  people  were  both 
disgusted  with  and  enraged  at  his  tyranny." 

Better  :  Were  both  disgusted  with  his  tyranny  and  enraged  at  it. 

"  If  the  boy  had  been  less  obstinate  he  might  have  escaped,  for  the  judges 
were  pleased  with  and  affected  by  his  frankness  and  youth." 

Better  :  Were  pleased  with  his  frankness  and  affected  by  his  youth. 

§   281.    THE   VARIATION    OF    CONNECTIVES. 

2.  There  are  many  ways  of  joining  words  and  clauses  together. 
Of  these,  the  most  common  is  the  conjunction  "and;"  but 
since  the  frequent  repetition  of  this  word  is  inelegant,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  vary  the  connectives  as  much  as  possible. 

Languages  differ  in  this  respect.  In  Greek  there  are  numer- 
ous connectives,  of  which  the  particle  Ik  is  used  to  an  extent 
not  allowable  in  other  languages,  and  not  transferable  to  Eng- 
lish. Latin,  although  possessing  many  conjunctions,  does  not 
tolerate  their  undue  repetition.  The  best  writers  seek  other 
modes  of  binding  clauses  and  sentences  together;  and  so  ad- 
mirable are  their  devices  to  this  end  with  relatives,  participles, 
and  adverbs,  that  the  study  of  them  is  of  great  benefit  to  the 
English  writer.  •  In  English,  as  in  Latin,  perpetual  variety  in 
this  respect  is  needed,  and  it  should  be  the  aim  of  every  one  to 
find  out  and  put  in  practice  the  different  ways  in  which  this 
can  be  effected.  Of  these,  the  following  are  the  most  com- 
mon : 

"Now,"  for  "and:" 

"  The  nobility  and  the  clergy  were  both  opposed  to  his  claims,  and  cre- 
ated a  strong  opposition  ;  and  he  at  first  pretended  to  favor  each,  so  as  to 
weaken  the  hostility  against  him,  but  he  at  length  threw  off  the  mask." 

By  putting  a  full  stop  after  opposition,  and  changing  the  fol- 
lowing "and"  into  "now,"  a  great  improvement  will  be  made. 
"  Nor :" 

"  The  prospects  of  Protestantism  in  France  and  Belgium  are  certainly 
not  flattering  ;  and  in  Italy  the  impartial  mind  cannot  as  yet  find  much  en- 
couragement." 

Better  :  Nor  in  Italy  can  the  impartial  mind. 


258  Elements  of  RJutoric. 

"With:" 

"  Austria  and  Prussia,  and  the  whole  body  of  the  German  states,  precip- 
itated themselves  upon  this  feeble  kingdom." 

Better :  Austria  and  Prussia,  with  the  whole  body  of  the  German  states, 
etc 

"While:" 

"  In  Russia  and  Austria  the  military  expenditure  goes  on  as  before  ;  and 
in  Italy  the  cost  of  armaments  is  destroying  the  country." 
Better  :  while  in  Italy. 

"Even:" 

"  In  France  and  Italy  water  is  often  unwholesome,  and  wine  is  the  only 
beverage ;  and  in  England  beer  and  porter  are  the  few  luxuries  of  the  farm- 
ers and  laborers." 

Better :  even  in  England. 

The  participial  construction  : 

"  The  nation  rose,  and  grew  to  wonderful  power,  and  suddenly  declined." 
The  participial  construction  may  be  substituted  here ;  thus : 
The  nation  rose,  and  after  growing  to  wonderful  power  suddenly  declined. 

§   282.    VARIETY    IN    THE    CLAUSES. 

3.  The  clauses  should  not  be  of  equal  length;  but  long  and 
short  should  be  intermingled,  so  as  to  follow  in  harmonious 
succession.     This  is  illustrated  by  the  following  passage : 

"  The  course  of  history  is  like  that  of  a  great  river  wandering  through  va- 
rious countries  ;  now,  in  the  infancy  of  its  current,  collecting  its  waters  from 
obscure  small  springs  in  splashy  meadows,  and  from  unconsidered  rivulets 
which  the  neighboring  rustics  do  not  know  the  name  of;  now,  in  its  boister- 
ous youth,  forcing  its  way  through  mountains  ;  now,  in  middle  life,  going 
with  equable  current  busily  by  great  towns,  its  waters  sullied  yet  enriched 
wnth  commerce  ;  and  now,  in  its  burdened  old  age,  making  its  slow  and  dif- 
ficult way,  with  great  broad  surface,  over  which  the  declining  sun  looms 
grandly,  to  the  sea." — Sir  Arthur  Helps. 

A  series  of  clauses  of  equal  length  tends  to  monotony;  and 
that  variety  which  is  an  essential  to  harmonious  diction  can 
only  be  found  where  the  members  of  a  sentence  exhibit  differ- 
ent degrees  of  length  and  of  rhythm.  In  the  passage  just 
quoted  this  is  very  perceptible. 


The  Harmonious  Arrangement  of  Words,       259 

§  283.    CO-ORDINATION    OF   CLAUSES. 

4.  An  elegant  construction  is  often  attained  by  the  co-ordi- 
nation of  clauses.  By  this  is  meant  the  setting  forth  of  several 
statements,  or  the  enumeration  of  several  particulars,  in  such  a 
way  that  the  construction  of  the  clauses  shall  be  similar : 

"  In  this  work,  when  it  shall  be  found  that  the  author  has  omitted  much, 
let  it  not  be  forgotten  that  much  has  been  performed." 

A  more  elegant  construction  would  be  as  follows : 

In  this  work,  when  it  shall  be  found  that  much  is  omitted,  let  it  not  be 
forgotten  that  much  likewise  is  performed. 

"  The  kingdom  was  at  this  time  in  a  critical  condition.  The  proud  oli- 
garchy defied  the  power  of  the  king  and  popular  rights,  and  set  each  at  de- 
fiance." 

Better : 

The  power  of  the  king  was  defied  ;  the  rights  of  the  people  were  ignored ; 
and  a  proud  oligarchy  set  each  at  defiance. 

"  Christianity  teaches  and  commands  us  that  we  should  moderate  our 
passions,  and  temper  our  affections  for  all  things  below,  with  thankfulness 
for  their  possession,  and  the  exhibition  of  patience  when  we  experience  loss, 
whenever  God  shall  take  away  the  things  that  he  gave  us." 

Better  : 

Christianity  teaches  and  commands  us  to  moderate  our  passions,  to  tem- 
per our  affections  towards  all  things  below ;  to  be  thankful  for  the  posses- 
sion, and  patient  under  the  loss,  whenever  He  who  gave  shall  see  fit  to 
take  away. 

§   284.    THE   CLOSE   OF   THE   SENTENCE. 

5.  The  close  of  the  sentence  requires  care,  since  it  is  the  last 
thing  upon  which  the  ear  rests. 

A  sonorous  word  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  is  generally  har- 
monious.    This  is  illustrated  in  the  following  passages  : 

"  We  must  remember  the  unexampled  abruptness  of  the  Arabian  Revo- 
lution. The  year  622,  by  its  very  name  of  Hegira,  does  not  record  a  triumph, 
but  a  humiliation." — De  Quincey. 

"  Beyond  our  planetary  system,  now  extended  by  the  discovery  of  Nep- 
tune to  three  thousand  millions  of  miles  from  the  sun,  and  throughout  the 
vast  expanse  of  the  universe,  the  telescope  will  exhibit  to  you  new  suns  and 
systems  of  worlds,  infinite  in  number  and  variety,  sustaining  doubtless  myr- 
iads of  living  beings,  and  presenting  new  spheres  for  the  exercise  of  divine 
power  and  beneficence." — De  Quincey. 

M 


26o  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  undeniable  beauty  of  such  terminations  has  led  some  to 
lay  it  down  as  a  law  that  a  sentence  ought  never  to  terminate 
with  a  short  word,  especially  if  it  be  a  preposition  ;  and  for  ex- 
amples of  faults  in  this  respect  they  offer  such  sentences  as  the 
following : 

"  It  is  a  mystery  we  firmly  believe  the  truth  of,  and  humbly  adore  the 
depth  o£" 

Some  of  the  best  English  authors,  however,  do  not  at  all  ob- 
ject to  such  terminations.  The  following  are  taken  from  Ad- 
dison : 

"They  are  very  hardly  brought  to  regard  any  truth,  how  important  so- 
ever it  may  be,  when  they  know  that  there  are  several  men  of  five  hundred 
a  year  who  do  not  believe  it" 

"  Great  scholars  that  are  forever  near  a  right  understanding,  and  vrill 
never  arrive  at  it." 

"  The  sense  of  honor  which  he  demonstrated  in  that  action  was  worth  all 
the  learning  in  the  world  without  it." 

"  Alexander,  being  asked  in  his  youth  to  contend  for  a  prize  in  the  01)rm- 
pic  games,  answered  he  would  if  he  had  kings  to  run  against  him." 

The  termination  by  a  preposition  is  also  common. 
Fox  says  : 

"  That  feeling  which  party  cannot  dispossess  us  of." 
"  Rivulets,"  says  Helps,  "  which  the  neighboring  rustics  do  not  know  the 
name  of." 
"  Such  as  few  persons  have  a  just  idea  of." — Bright. 
"The  indulgence  which  I  began  by  thanking  you  for." — Erskine. 
"  He  has  no  family  to  return  to." — Erskine. 

The  truth  is  that  the  genius  of  the  English  language  is  in 
favor  of  this  construction.  It  may  be  found  constantly  in  com- 
mon conversation,  when  to  adopt  the  other  form  would  be  con- 
sidered pedantic.  It  is  vigorous  and  idiomatic,  and  altogether 
English.  The  other  may  be  considered  as  due  to  Latin  influ- 
ence, and  it  prevails  chiefly  among  those  who  use  a  Latinized 
style. 

Somerimes  the  little  word  is  a  very  strong  and  emphatic  one. 
The  English  language  is  largely  made  up  of  such  words,  and 
some  of  the  smallest  have  the  greatest  force. 

Nor  is  it  in  any  way  a  violation  of  that  euphony  which  is 
sought  after  by  the  admirers  of  a  Latinized  style.     When  we 


Transitions.  261 

judge  not  by  the  eye,  but  by  the  ear,  we  shall  find  that  the 
musical  effect  of  one  or  two  short  unaccented  words  at  the  end 
of  a  sentence  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  of  one  or  two  un- 

accented  syllables.     Thus  :  "  on  account  of  it  "  in  euphony  is 

the  same  as  "company;"  "by  means  of  it"  has  the  same  eu- 

phonic  effect  as  "tragedy,"  "beneficence,"  or  any  other  dac- 

/ 
tylic  word ;  "  truth  of,"  "  depth  of,"  are  trochaic,  and  are  equal 

in  tone  to  "  virtue,"  "  goodness." 

In  forming  the  conclusions  of  clauses  or  sentences,  it  would 
be  a  great  mistake  to  seek  always  for  sonorous  words.  It 
might  be  tolerable  in  oratory  or  elevated  writing,  but  it  would 
be  almost  certain  to  be  tedious.  As  in  the  course  of  the  sen- 
tence long  and  short  clauses  must  be  intermingled,  so  at  the 
close  there  should  be  such  a  rhythmical  termination  as  may 
best  conduce  to  an  elegant  variety.  This  is  essential  to  true 
harmony,  and  after  all  it  is  better  to  be  even  rough  and  harsh 
than  effeminate,  languid,  or  monotonous. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

TRANSITIONS. 
§   285.    HARMONY    IN   GENERAL. 

Elegance  of  style  refers  not  only  to  the  choice  and  arrange- 
ment of  words,  but  also  to  the  management  of  the  work  as  a 
whole,  its  introduction,  the  statement  of  the  different  arguments, 
and  the  transition  from  one  topic  to  another. 

§  286.    THE    INTRODUCTION. 

The  introduction  will  be  more  fully  considered  under  the 
head  of  method,  and  needs  but  a  brief  notice  in  this  place. 
An  elegant  introduction  is  neither  too  abrupt  nor  too  much 
prolonged.  It  is  managed  in  such  a  way  that  the  reader  is 
drawn  on  gently  and  gradually  towards  the  discussion  of  the 
subject.  The  writer  who  is  most  conspicuous  for  easy  grace  in 
this  respect  is  Addison. 


262  Elements  of  RJutoric. 

§  287.    TRANSITIONS. 

The  same  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  introduction  of  the 
various  divisions  of  arguments,  and  the  writer  must  study  the 
best  way  by  which  the  attention  of  the  reader  may  be  trans- 
ferred from  the  conclusion  of  one  topic  to  the  beginning  of 
another.     This  is  called  transition. 

In  didactic  or  scientific  works  the  chief  and,  indeed,  the  sole 
consideration  is  perspicuity,  and  here  the  presentation  of  topics 
should  be  as  direct  and  strongly  marked  as  possible.  The  di- 
visions and  subdivisions  also  should  be  made  very  prominent, 
and  every  new  argument  should  be  distinctly  and  clearly  stated. 
But  in  those  writings  where  the  higher  qualities  of  style  are 
sought  after  a  different  course  must  be  adopted.  In  these  the 
argument  must  of  course  be  carefully  elaborated,  and  made  as 
effective  as  possible  ;  but  the  divisions  of  the  subject  must  be 
so  managed  that  the  reader  may  pass  from  one  to  another 
without  too  much  abruptness. 

Abrupt  transitions  are  found  most  frequently  in  sermons.  It 
once  was  the  common  fashion  for  the  preacher  to  state  the 
whole  argument  at  the  outset  by  way  of  introduction,  a  course 
that  has  been  followed  but  seldom  indeed  in  any  other  species 
of  composition.  This  practice  is  not  so  common  now,  but  it 
is  by  no  means  given  up.  Another  fashion,  equally  inelegant, 
still  prevails  :  it  is  a  transition  to  new  topics  by  means  of  the 
words  "  secondly,"  "  thirdly,"  "  fourthly,"  etc.  The  practice  is 
so  common  that  objections  are  seldom  or  never  made  ;  yet 
no  public  lecturer  or  journalist  or  magazine  writer  or  essayist 
would  think  of  adopting  it  as  a  rule,  nor  would  any  advocate 
before  a  jury,  or  any  Parliamentary  orator. 

§  288.    THE    FORMAL   TRANSITION. 

The  transition  may  be  considered  as  of  two  kinds  :  first,  the 
formal ;  and,  secondly,  the  elegant. 

The  formal  transition  is  characterized  by  the  employment  of 
certain  words  or  forms  of  speech  by  which  it  is  directly  an- 
nounced. These  are  appropriate  to  didactic,  scientific,  and 
argumentative  works,  and  consist  of  such  terms  as  the  follow- 
ing :  "  First,"  "  secondly,"  thirdly,"  etc. ;  "  again,"  "yea,  more," 
"  once  more,"  "  moreover,"  "  besides,"  "  but  this  is  not  all," 
"  and  further." 


Transitions,  263 

:  A  good  example  of  the  formal  transition  is  found  in  the  fol- 
lowing extract  from  De  Quincey's  essay  on  Homer  and  the 
Homeridae : 

"  The  first  class  of  arguments,  therefore,  for  the  sanity  of  the  existing 
Homer,  is  derived  from  language.  Our  second  argument  we  derive  from 
the  ideality  of  Achilles." 

§   289.    THE   ELEGANT   TRANSITION. 

In  the  elegant  transition,  on  the  contrary,  such  formal  state- 
ments are  carefully  avoided,  and  the  writer  seeks  to  transfer 
the  attention  of  the  reader  to  a  fresh  topic  in  such  a  manner 
that  there  shall  be  no  abruptness,  but  that  the  new  one  shall 
seem  to  grow  out  of  the  old. 

An  example  of  this  may  be  found  in  De  Quincey's  essay  on 
Style,  in  which  he  proceeds  to  show  the  effect  of  the  publication 
of  books  upon  general  literature.  The  new  topic  is  introduced 
thus  : 

"  Did  the  reader  ever  happen  to  reflect  upon  the  idea  of  publication — an 
idea  we  call  it ;  because,  even  in  our  own  times,  with  all  the  mechanic  aids 
of  steam-presses,  etc.,  this  object  is  most  imperfectly  approached,  and  is 
destined,  perhaps,  forever  to  remain  an  unattainable  ideal." 

Another  example  of  transition  by  the  same  author  is  as  fol- 
lows : 

"  Such  being  the  state  of  preparation,  what  was  the  result  ?  These  were 
the  words  which  concluded  our  last  essay.  .  .  .  We  must  acknowledge  that 
it  had  fallen  far  below  the  standard  of  our  experience." 

The  following  passage  affords  another  example  : 

"  Mutual  service  in  endless  gradation  is  clearly  the  world's  great  law. 
In  the  natural  grouping  of  human  life  the  same  rule  is  found.  It  is  not 
similarity,  but  dissimilarity  that  constitutes  the  qualification  for  heartfelt 
union  among  mankind ;  and  the  mental  affinities  resemble  the  electric,  in 
which  like  poles  repel,  while. the  unlike  attract," — Martineau. 

The  transition  is  here  eloquently  made  from  "mutual  ser- 
vice "  in  nature  to  the  same  thing  among  men. 

The  same  thing  may  be  seen  in  digressions,  which,  to  be  ef- 
fective, should  always  be  the  outgrowth  of  the  subject;  and 
more  especially  in  the  return  to  the  subject  which  must  follow 
such  digressions. 

An  example  of  the  formal  kind  may  be  found  in  the  follow- 
ing from  De  Quincey : 


264  Elemcfits  of  Rhetoric. 

"  Here  let  us  retrace  the  course  of  our  speculations,  lest  the  reader  should 
suppose  us  to  be  wandering/' 

A  more  elegant  example  is  furnished  by  the  same  author, 
who,  after  a  long  digression  upon  German  prose,  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment, Mr.  Pitt,  Ariadne's  clew,  and  the  tricks  of  a  funambulist, 
returns  at  last  to  his  proper  subject  with  these  words : 

"  We  might  have  made  our  readers  merry  with  the  picture  of  German 
prose,  but  we  must  not  linger.  It  is  enough  to  say  that  it  offers  the  coun- 
terpole  to  the  French  style.  .  .  .  But  these  faults — are  they  in  practice  so 
wearisome  and  exhausting  as  we  have  described  them  .^" 

§  290.  PARAGRAPHS. 

Paragraphs  are  the  smaller  portions  into  which  composition 
is  divided,  and  each  one  is  usually  occupied  with  a  subordinate 
head  of  the  argument.  The  whole  subject  of  transition  has 
therefore  an  especial  reference  to  these. 

But  the  paragraph  has  also  other  uses,  for  it  has  grown  of 
late  to  be  a  distinct  department  of  writing,  and  is  now  almost 
as  important  to  the  newspaper  as  the  leading  article.  It  is 
used  chiefly  for  the  following  purposes : 

To  give  intelligence. 

To  answer  an  opponent. 

To  give  the  essence  of  an  argument 

To  attack. 

To  defend. 

The  importance  which  it  has  acquired  causes  it  to  receive 
special  attention,  and  the  good  "  paragraphist"  is  as  much  ap- 
preciated, and  at  the  same  time  as  rare,  as  the  good  essayist. 

§   291.    THE   CONCLUSION. 

From  the  examples  above  given,  it  will  be  seen  that  transi- 
tions from  one  topic  to  another  refer  not  only  to  the  introduc- 
tions of  paragraphs,  but  also  to  their  conclusions.  In  addi- 
tion to  these,  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  general  conclusion. 
An  elegant  treatment  of  this  requires  that  it  should  be  neither 
too  formal,  nor  too  abrupt,  nor  too  greatly  protracted.  The 
writer  who  aims  to  introduce  his  subject  with  an  attractive 
ease  will  seek  also  to  withdraw  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  a 
pleasing  impression. 


Word  Paintiyig  and  Onomatopoeia,  265 


CHAPTER  V. 

WORD  PAINTING  AND  ONOMATOPOEIA. 
§  292.   WORD   PAINTING. 

Rhetoric,  under  its  conception  as  belles-lettres,  and  as  a  fine 
art,  may  be  considered  as  analogous  sometimes  to  painting, 
and  at  other  times  to  music.  It  assimilates  itself  with  the  art 
of  painting  where  a  portrayal  is  made  by  vivid  description,  so 
that  the  scene  lives  before  the  mind,  and  the  artist  can  easily 
reproduce  it  to  the  eye.  The  truth  of  this  resemblance  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  very  term  commonly  applied  to  this  kind  of  writ- 
ing, "word  painting."  Sir  Walter  Scott's  trial  of  Effie  Deans 
and  Macaulay's  trial  of  Warren  Hastings  are  well-known  ex- 
amples.    In  the  following  passage  this  is  well  illustrated : 

"  The  noonday  sun  came  slanting  down  the  rocky  slopes  of  La  Riccia. 
.  .  .  Purple  and  crimson  and  scarlet,  like  the  curtains  of  God's  tabernacle,  the 
rejoicing  trees  sank  into  the  valley  in  showers  of  light,  every  separate  leaf 
quivering  with  buoyant  and  burning  life  ;  each  as  it  turned  to  reflect  or 
transmit  the  sunbeam,  first  a  torch  and  then  an  emerald.  Far  up  into  the 
recesses  of  the  valley  the  green  vistas  arched  like  the  hollows  of  mighty 
waves  of  some  crystalline  sea,  with  the  arbutus  flowers  dashed  along  their 
flanks  for  foam,  and  silver  flakes  of  orange  spray  tossed  into  the  air  around 
them,  breaking  over  the  gray  walls  of  rock  into  a  thousand  separate  stars, 
fading  and  kindling  alternately  as  the  weak  wind  let  them  fall.  Every  glade 
of  grass  burned  like  the  golden  floor  of  heaven,  opening  in  sudden  gleams 
as  the  foliage  broke  and  closed  above  it,  as  sheet-lightning  opens  in  a  cloud 
at  sunset ;  the  motionless  masses  of  dark  rock — dark  though  flushed  with 
scarlet  lichen — casting  their  quiet  shadows  across  its  restless  radiance,  the 
fountain  underneath  them  filling  its  marble  hollow  with  blue  mist  and  fitful 
sound,  and  over  all  the  multitudinous  bars  of  amber  and  rose,  the  sacred 
clouds  that  have  no  darkness,  and  only  exist  to  illumine,  were  seen  in  fath- 
omless intervals  between  the  solemn  and  orbed  repose  of  the  stone-pines, 
passing  to  lose  themselves  in  the  last,  white,  blinding  lustre  of  the  measure- 
less line  where  the  Campagna  melted  into  the  blaze  of  the  sea." — Ruskin. 

§  293.   THE   MUSIC    OF    WORDS. 

Rhetoric  presents  an  analogy  not  only  to  painting,  but  also 
to  music.     This  is  brought  about  when  the  writer  devotes 


266  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

much  attention  to  the  music  of  his  words  and  the  rhythmic  flow 
of  his  sentences ;  so  that  in  the  very  sound  there  is  something 
that  affects  the  ear  and  helps  the  meaning  by  its  suggestive- 
ness.  The  appeal  is  thus  made  to  the  mind  by  the  "  harmony 
of  sweet  sounds."  Poetry  has  this  to  an  eminent  degree.  In 
the  famous  Bugle  Song  of  Tennyson,  there  is  in  the  very 
sound  of  the  words  and  movement  of  the  metre  a  suggestive- 
ness  beyond  the  meaning  that  can  be  gathered  from  any  gram- 
matical analysis  of  the  sentences  : 

•'  The  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls. 

And  snowy  summits  old  in  story; 
The  long  light  shakes  along  the  lakes, 

And  the  wild  cataract  leaps  in  glory. 
Blow,  bugle,  blow,  set  the  wild  echoes  flying. 
Blow,  bugle  :  answer  echoes,  dying,  dying,  dying  ! 

"  O  hark !  O  hear !  how  thin  and  clear. 

And  thinner,  clearer,  farther  going, 
O  sweet  and  far !  from  cliff  and  scar. 

The  horns  of  elf-land  faintly  blowing. 
Blow,  let  us  hear  the  purple  glens  repljnng. 
Blow,  bugle  :  answer  echoes,  dying,  dying,  dying ! 

"  O  love,  they  die  in  yon  rich  sky ; 

They  faint  on  hill,  or  field,  or  river ; 
Our  echoes  roll  from  soul  to  soul. 

And  grow  forever  and  forever. 
Blow,  bugle,  blow,  set  the  wild  echoes  flying. 
And  answer,  echoes,  answer,  dying,  dying,  dying !" 

While  poetry  has  this  to  an  eminent  degree,  it  is  perceptible 
and  influential  in  prose ;  and  the  critic  must  notice  not  only  the 
argument  of  a  work,  or  its  perspicuity,  or  its  persuasiveness 
or  elegance,  but  also  its  general  tone. 

The  subject  of  tone,  or  sound  in  style,  has  reference  both  to 
the  choice  of  words  and  their  arrangement.  In  the  former 
case  it  is  called  onomatopoeia.  In  the  latter,  rhythmus  or 
rhythm. 

§  294.  ONOMATOPCEIA. 

Onomatopoeia  is  a  figure  of  speech,  and  consists  in  the  use 
of  words  the  sound  of  which  suggests  the  thing  signified  ;  as, 
"hum,"  ''hiss,"  "buzz,"  "crash,"  "roar,"  "boom,"  "smash." 

All  languages  are  full  of  such  words,  and  their  existence  is 
an  important  fact  for  which  the  philologist  has  to  account. 


Word  Painting  and  Onomatopoeia.  267 

The  origin  of  language  itself  is  deduced  by  one  school  from 
words  of  this  class,  which  were  first  made  use  of  in  order  to 
represent  external  things  by  vocal  sounds.  To  this  first,  fol- 
lowed secondly  by  the  use  of  tropes,  and  thirdly  by  the  com- 
position of  words,  they  attribute  the  origin  and  development 
of  language.  Our  concern  is  with  onomatopoeia  as  a  rhetorical 
figure,  and  as  such  it  is  immediately  connected  with  euphony 
and  elegance  in  words.  By  means  of  this  a  resemblance  is 
established  between  the  sound  of  the  word  and  the  thing  sig- 
nified, external  objects  are  represented  in  the  most  vivid  and 
expressive  manner,  the  qualities  of  things  are  unfolded ;  even 
abstract  ideas  are  presented  with  unwonted  clearness  and  dis- 
tinctness. 

§  295.  ONOMATOPOEIA   IN    POETRY. 

It  is  in  poetry  that  the  most  extensive  and  most  striking  use 
of  this  figure  appears.  Poets  test  to  the  uttermost  the  resources 
of  language;  their  art  gives  them  greater  liberty  in  the  choice 
and  arrangement  of  words ;  their  aim  is  to  convey  to  other 
minds,  with  the  utmost  vividness,  the  thoughts,  feelings,  and 
images  that  arise  within  themselves.  Those  poets  who  are 
most  conspicuous  for  their  musical  sensibility  are  also  most 
noted  for  their  management  of  this  figure. 

Milton  surpasses  all  other  English  poets  in  his  exquisite 
musical  sensibility,  and  in  the  wonderful  variety  of  his  har- 
mony. This  ever-varying  harmony  is  due,  first,  to  the  match- 
less art  which  he  displays  in  his  versification,  where,  under  the 
form  of  iambic  metre,  he  succeeds  in  exhibiting  the  effects  of 
all  the  other  metres ;  and,  secondly,  to  his  unequalled  skill  in 
the  use  of  onomatopoeia.  Those  passages  in  the  Paradise  Lost 
which  exhibit  the  resemblance  between  sound  and  sense  have 
been  so  often  quoted  as  illustrations  of  this  figure  that  they 
have  become  hackneyed,  yet  some  of  them  may  be  quoted 
again  from  their  very  excellence.  Of  all  these,  none  are  so 
well  known  as  the  famous  descriptions  of  the  opening  of  the 
gates  of  hell  and  of  heaven. 

The  opening  of  the  gates  of  hell  is  described  in  a  way  which 
suggests  the  utmost  harshness  : 

"On  a  sudden  open  fly, 
With  impetuous  recoil  and  jarring  sound, 
The  infernal  doors,  and  on  their  hinges  grate 
Harsh  thunder." 

M  2 


268  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  opening  of  the  gates  of  heaven  is  represented  as  full 
of  heaven's  own  peace  and  harmony: 

"  Heaven  opened  wide 
Her  ever-during  gates,  harmonious  sound. 
On  golden  hinges  turning." 

This  passage  is  an  example  of  perfect  euphony,  from  the 
prevalence  of  smooth  liquid  sounds. 

The  uproar  of  a  vast  host  is  described  in  the  following : 

"  Highly  they  raged 
Against  the  Highest,  and  fierce,  with  grasped  arms 
Clashed  on  their  sounding  shields  the  din  of  war." 

Or  in  the  following  : 

"Arms  on  armor  clashing  bray'd 
Horrible  discord,  and  the  madding  wheels 
Of  brazen  chariots  rag'd ;  dire  was  the  noise 
Of  conflict ;   overhead  the  dismal  hiss 
Of  fiery  darts  in  flaming  volleys  flew." 

The  sounds  of  the  things  described  are  indicated  by  the 
words  in  the  following  lines  from  the  same  author : 

"  Brushed  with  the  hiss  of  rustling  wings." 

"The  warlike  sound 
Of  trumpets  loud  and  clarions." 

"  Sonorous  metal  blowing  martial  sounds : 
At  which  the  universal  host  up  sent 
A  shout  that  tore  hell's  concave." 

The  following  lines  display  the  force  and  fury  of  a  thunder- 
storm : 

"The  thunder, 
Winged  with  red  lightning  and  impetuous  rage, 
Perhaps  hath  spent  his  shafts,  and  ceases  now 
To  bellow  through  the  vast  and  boundless  deep." 

This  last  line  is  like  one  in  the  ode  on  the  Nativity: 

"  The  wakeful  trump  of  doom  must  thunder  through  the  deep." 

Many  lines  of  Paradise  Lost  have  their  counterparts  in  this 
sublime  ode.     Thus : 

"And  on  the  washy  ooze  deep  channels  wore." 
In  the  ode  we  find  : 

"  And  bid  the  weltering  waves  their  oozy  channels  keep." 


Word  Painting  and  Onomatopoeia.  269 

This  ode  is  itself  full  of  lines  that  afford  examples  of  ono- 
matopoeia : 

"  The  winds  in  wonder  wist." 

"  Divinely  warbled  voice." 

"  With  such  a  horrid  clang 
As  on  Mount  Sinai  rang." 

"  Ring  out,  ye  crystal  spheres  ! 
Once  bless  our  human  ears. 

If  ye  have  power  to  touch  our  senses  so ; 
And  let  your  silver  chime 
Move  in  melodious  time; 

And  let  the  bass  of  heaven's  deep  organ  blow; 
And  with  your  ninefold  harmony 
Make  up  full  consort  to  the  angelic  symphony  !" 

Pope  manages  this  figure  with  the  utmost  skill.  The  follow- 
ing are  well-known  examples : 

*'  When  Ajax  strives  some  rock's  vast  weight  to  throw, 
The  line  too  labors,  and  the  words  move  slow," 

Here  the  combinations  of  consonants  indicate  difficulty  and 
effort.    The  aspirates  serve  the  same  purpose  in  the  following : 

"Up  the  high  hill  he  heaves  a  huge  round  stone." 

Dulness  is  indicated  in  the  following : 

"Just  writes  to  make  his  barrenness  appear, 
And  strains  from  hard-bound  brains  six  lines  a  year." 

The  monosyllables,  and  the  rhyming  of  "strains"  with 
"brains,"  give  slowness  to  the  movement,  and  suggest  heavi- 
ness and  stupidity. 

"  While  feeble  expletives  their  aid  do  join. 
And  ten  low  words  oft  creep  in  one  dull  line." 

Here  "  do  "  is  a  "  feeble  expletive,"  and  "  ten  low  words  "  are 
introduced  into  the  second  line. 

In  the  following  line  the  noise  made  by  a  clock  is  suggested: 

"The  varnished  clock  that  clicked  behind  the  door." 

— Goldsmith. 
Gray's  Elegy  abounds  in  such  lines : 

"  Save  where  the  beetle  wheels  his  droning  flight, 
And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  fold." 

"The  moping  owl  does  to  the  moon  complain." 


270  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Collins  makes  frequent  use  of  this  figure  : 

"Now  air  is  hushed,  save  where  the  weak-e)'ed  bat, 
With  short,  shrill  shriek,  flits  by  on  leathern  wing; 
Or  where  the  beetle  winds 
His  small,  but  sullen  horn." 

The  ode  on  the  Passions  is  one  long  exannple  of  onomato- 
poeia. 

Campbell's  poems  furnish  many  examples : 

"  Their  shots  along  the  deep  slowly  boom ; 
Then  ceased — and  all  is  wail.  .  .  . 
With  thunders  from  her  native  oak 
She  quells  the  floods  below, 
As  they  roar  on  the  shore  ..." 

Byron  does  not  exhibit  this  very  frequently,  but  some  of  his 
passages  afford  vigorous  examples. 

In  the  following  lines  there  is  the  representation  of  a  cataract: 

"  Rapid  as  the  light. 
The  flashing  mass  foams,  shaking  the  abyss. 
The  hell  of  waters !  how  they  howl  and  hiss, 
And  boil  in  endless  torture!" 

The  alarm  of  battle,  and  the  mingled  sounds  attendant  upon 
it,  are  described  : 

"  Hark  ! — that  heavy  sound  breaks  in  once  more 
As  if  the  clouds  its  echo  would  repeat ; 
And  nearer,  clearer,  deadlier  than  before ! 
Arm !  arm  !  it  is — it  is — the  cannon's  opening  roar  I 

And  the  deep  thunder  peal  on  peal  afar — 


How  in  the  noon  of  night  that  pibroch  thrills 
Savage  and  shrill." 

In  Southey's  Falls  of  Lodore  the  whole  poem  consists  of 
onomatopoetic  words ;  but  this  is  not  so  much  poetry  as  a 
tour  deforce. 

A  better  example  is  found  in  Poe's  Song  of  the  Bells. 

Poe's  poetry  is  full  of  words  of  this  character.  Thus,  in  the 
Raven,  the  word  "  nevermore  "  is  suggestive  of  melancholy  and 
despair.     In  the  following  lines  the  words  imitate  the  sense  ; 

"A  perfumed  censer 
Swung  by  seraphim  whose  footfalls  tinkled  on  the  tufted  floor," 

"  The  silken  sad  uncertain  rustling  of  each  purple  curtain." 


Word  Painting  and  Onomatopoeia,  271 

Mrs.  Browning  has  a  line  like  this  in  her  Lady  Geraldine, 
a  resemblance  no  doubt  arising  from  unconscious  imitation 
rather  than  deliberate  plagiarism. 

•  Tennyson's  poetry  stands  next  to  that  of  Milton  for  the  fre- 
quency and  variety  of  the  use  of  this  figure.  This  arises  from 
that  delicate  musical  sense  common  to  both,  which  leads  each 
poet  to  draw  from  individual  words  and  from  their  collocation 
all  the  harmony  of  which  they  are  capable.  The  Bugle  Song, 
quoted  elsewhere,  is  all  onomatopoeia. 

In  the  following  the  noise  of  the  surf  is  imitated  : 

"  And  roar  rock-thwarted  under  billowy^  caves 
Beneath  the  windy  fall." 

The  sound  of  trampling  feet : 

"Slippery  crag  that  rang 
Sharp-smitten  with  the  dint  of  armed  heels." 

The  confused  and  manifold  noises  of  battle  : 

"The  shattering  trumpet  shrilleth  high, 
The  hard  brands  shiver  on  the  steel, 

The  splintered  spear -shafts  crack  and  fly. 
The  horse  and  rider  reel — 

They  reel,  they  roll  in  clanging  lists." 

The  war-drum : 

"Thy  voice  is  heard  through  rolling  drums 
That  beat  to  battle  where  he  stands." 

The  myriad  voices  of  nature  are  represented  in  the  following 
exquisite  lines  : 

"Every  sound  is  sweet — 
Myriads  of  rivulets  hurrying  through  the  lawn, 
The  moan  of  doves  in  immemorial  elms. 
And  murmur  of  innumerable  bees." 

The  rapid  movement  of  the  second  line  is  indicative  of  a 
"hurrying"  stream. 

The  effects  of  reverberated  sound  : 

"Front  to  front  in  an  hour  we  stood, 
And  a  million  horrible,  bellowing  echoes  broke 
From  the  red-ribbed  hollow  beyond  the  wood." 


2/2  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  confused  noises  of  a  city  street : 

"  With  never  an  end  to  the  stream-of  passing  feet — 
Driving,  hurrj'ing,  marrying,  burying, 
Clamor,  and  rumble,  and  ringing,  and  clatter." 

The  explosion  of  cannon  : 
"  The  rushing  battle-bolt  sang  from  the  three-decker  out  of  the  foam." 

The  softer  influences  of  peace : 

"  Peace 
Pipe  on  her  pastoral  hillock  a  languid  note." 

The  varying  sounds  of  a  flowing  brook  .  r  j  suggested  in  a 
well-known  poem,  from  which  the  following  is  an  extract : 

"I  chatter  over  stony  ways 
In  little  sharps  and  trebles; 
I  bubble  into  eddying  bays, 
I  babble  at  the  pebbles. 

*'  I  chatter,  chatter,  as  I  go 

To  join  the  brimming  river ; 
For  men  may  come,  and  men  may  go. 
But  I  go  on  forever." 

An  imitation  of  the  manner  of  a  ranting  preacher : 

"  Our  Boanerges,  with  his  threats  of  doom. 
And  loud-lunged  anti-Babylonianisms." 

§   296.    ONOMATOPCEIA   IN    PROSE. 

In  prose  it  is  not  so  frequent  as  in  poetry.  It  is  too  arti- 
ficial, and  would  be  distasteful  in  the  one,  even  when  highly 
beautiful  in  the  other.  This  is  seen  in  such  phrases  as, 
"Tumble  precipitate  down  dashed;"  "The  winds  in  wonder 
wist ;"  which,  though  effective  in  poetry,  would  not  be  tolerated 
in  prose. 

There  is,  however,  abundant  room  even  in  prose  for  the  em- 
ployment of  onomatopoeia,  and  its  chief  use  consists  in  the 
selection  of  those  words  which  afford  the  most  vivid  description 
of  any  given  thing.  Thus  it  is  better  to  say  the  "crash"  of 
falling  timber  than  the  "  noise ;"  and  in  the  following  cases 
such  a  general  term  as  "noise"  is  far  inferior  to  the  onomato- 
poetic  words:  the  "whistling"  of  the  winds;  the  "boom"  of 


Word  Painting  a?id  Onomatopoeia.  273 

cannon;  the  "shriek"  of  the  blast;  the  "roar"  of  a  tempest; 
the  "wail"  of  a  child. 

"  The  spray  was  hissing  hot,  and  a  huge  jet  of  water  burst  up  from  its 
midst." 

This  is  much  more  vivid  than  if  the  following  statement 
were  made : 

The  water  was  boiling,  and  threw  up  a  great  fountain  from  its  midst. 

He  "plunged"  into  the  river,  is  better  than  "he  threw  him- 
self." The  horse  came  "galloping"  down  the  road,  is  better 
than  the  horse  came  "  quickly." 

Such  is  the  nature  of  language  that,  if  the  best  possible  word 
be  chosen,  it  will  often  prove  to  be  one  of  this  description. 
This  choice  of  the  best  word  means  precision,  and  hence  the 
effort  to  be  precise  will  often  lead  to  excellence  of  another  and 
very  different  kind.  Pope,  who  is  remarkable  for  precision, 
abounds  in  onomatopoeia. 

§  297.    THE    LATIN     ELEMENT    IN    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE    IS 
INVALUABLE    FOR   PURPOSES   OF    HARMONY. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  combination  of 
Latin  and  Saxon  in  English,  and  it  has  been  said  that  for  pur- 
poses of  perspicuity  the  Saxon  is  superior.  It  now  remains  to 
say  that  for  purposes  of  harmony  the  Latin  is  invaluable,  and 
for  high  pomp  and  majesty  it  is  superior  to  the  Saxon. 

The  Latin  language  is  superior  to  the  Saxon,  and  all  other 
members  of  the  Teutonic  family,  in  point  of  euphony.  In  its 
words  we  find  vowels  and  consonants  in  equal  number,  a  large 
proportion  of  liquids,  and  a  striking  exhibition  of  sonorous 
music  and  magnificence.  If  we  examine  the  finest  passages  in 
English  literature,  we  shall  find  that  the  Latin  words  employed 
confer  indescribable  beauty  and  splendor,  which  are  heightened 
by  their  contrast  with  the  Saxon  words.  The  character  of  the 
Saxon  is  tenderness,  earnestness,  simplicity;  that  of  the  Latin 
grandeur  and  stateliness.  The  value  of  the  Latin  element  in 
our  language  may  be  seen  by  examining  familiar  passages  from 
our  chief  poets.     The  following  are  from  Shakespeare  : 

"Such  harmony  is  in  immortal  souls." 
"Fit  for  treasons  stratagems  and  spoils.^'' 


274  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

"  Pride,  pomp^  and  circumstance  of  glorious  war." 

"On  horror's  head  horrors  cucumulate,^* 

"  Counterfeit  presentment  of  two  brothers.** 

"  It  will  discourse  most  eloquent  mitsu." 

"Canst  thou  not  minister  to  a  mind  diseased?" 

"  Sweet  oblivious  antidote^ 

"  Even-handed  Justice 
Commends  the  ingredients  of  our  poisoned  chalice 
To  our  own  lips." 

"  Vaulting  ambition:' 

"  Her  infinite  TMiriety:' 

"Whose  conscience  with  injustice  is  corrupUd:^ 

''Uses  oT adversity:' 

"  Of  imagination  all  compact:' 

"  My  hand  will  rather 
The  multitudinous  seas  incarnadine:' 

Milton's  style  is  far  more  Latinized  than  that  of  Shakes- 
peare, and  many  of  his  most  magnificent  lines  consist  chiefly 
of  Latin  words.     The  following  are  examples : 

"  Throne Sy  dontinations,  princedoms,  virtues,  powers:' 

''Sonorous  metal  blowing  martial  sounds:' 

"  Deep  on  his  front  engraven 
Deliberation  sat,  and  public  care:' 

"  The  palpable  obscure:' 

"  Devil  with  devil  damn'd. 
Firm  concord  holds,  men  only  disagree 
Of  creatures  rational:' 

"Ruin  upon  ruin,  rout  on  ro$ttt 
Confusion  worse  confounded,"" 

"  Vernal  bloom.*' 

"Human  face  divine:' 

"  Necessity,  tht  tyrant's  plea:' 

"  Vacant  interlunar  cave:' 


Word  Painting  and  Onomatopoeia,  275 

^^  Embattled  armies^ 

"Heaven  opened  wide 
Her  ^vtX'during  gates,  harmonious  sounds 

This  subject  may  be  further  illustrated  by  examples  from 
other  poets  : 

•'In  those  deep  solitudes  and  awful  cells, 
Where  heavenly  pensive  Contemplation  dwells, 
And  ever-musing  Melancholy  reigns." — Pope. 

"An  elegant  sufficiency,  content, 
Retirement,  rural  quiet,  friendship,  books. 
Ease  and  alternate  labor,  useful  life. 
Progressive  virtue  and  approving  heaven." — Thomson. 

"Superfluous  lags  the  veteran  on  the  stage." — Johnson. 

"Storied  urn  or  animated  bust." — Gray. 

"The  intelligible  forms  of  ancient  poets. 
The  fair  humanities  of  old  religion. 
The  power,  the  beauty,  and  the  majesty." — Coleridge. 

"The  vision  and  the  faculty  divine." — Wordsworth. 

In  a  poem  by  William  Wetmore  Story  on  the  English  Lan- 
guage there  is  a  description  of  the  various  elements  which 
contribute  towards  its  formation,  while  the  poem  itself  is  an 
example  of  onomatopoeia  : 

"  Give  me  of  every  language  first  my  vigorous  English, 
Stored  with  imported  wealth,  rich  in  its  natural  mines. 
Grand  in  its  rhythmical  cadence,  simple  for  household  employment, 
Worthy  the  poet's  song,  fit  for  the  speech  of  man. 

Thou  hast  the  sharp,  clean  edge  and  the  downright  blow  of  the  Saxon ; 
Thou  the  majestical  march  and  the  stately  pomp  of  the  Latin ; 
Thou  the  euphonious  swell,  the  rhythmical  roll  of  the  Greek ; 
Thine  is  the  elegant  suavity  caught  from  sonorous  Italian ; 
Thine  the  chivalric  obeisance,  the  courteous  grace  of  the  Norman ; 
Thine  the  Teutonic  German's  inborn  guttural  strength. 

Now  clear,  pure,  hard,  bright,  and  one  by  one  like  to  hailstones, 
Short  words  fall  from  his  lips  fast  as  the  first  of  a  shower ; 
Now  in  a  twofold  column,  spondee,  iamb,  and  trochee, 
Unbroke,  firm-set,  advance,  retreat,  trampling  along ; 
Now  with  a  sprightlier  springiness  bounding  in  triplicate  syllables 
Dance  the  elastic  dactylics  in  musical  cadences  on ; 


276  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Now  their  voluminous  coil  intertangling  like  huge  anacondas 
Roll  overwhelmingly  onward  the  sesquipedalian  words. 

Therefore  it  is  that  I  praise  thee,  and  never  can  cease  from  rejoicing, 

Thinking  that  good  stout  English  is  mine  and  my  ancestor's  tongue ; 

Give  me  its  varying  music,  the  flow  of  its  free  modulation — 

I  will  not  covet  the  full  roll  of  the  glorious  Greek, 

Luscious  and  feeble  Italian,  Latin  so  formal  and  stately, 

French  with  its  nasal  lisp,  nor  German  inverted  and  harsh  ; 

Not  while  our  organ  can  speak  with  its  many  and  wonderful  voices, 

Play  on  the  soft  lute  of  love,  blow  the  loud  trumpet  of  war. 

Sing  with  the  high  sesquialtro,  or  drawing  its  full  diapason, 

Shake  all  the  air  with  the  grand  storm  of  its  pedals  and  stops." 


CHAPTER  VI. 
RHYTHM. 


§  298.    RHYTHM    IN    POETRY. 

Tone  or  sound  in  style,  when  referring  to  the  arrangement 
of  words,  is  called  rhythmus  or  rhythm. 

Rhythm  means  a  recurrence  of  sound  at  regular  intervals, 
and  was  formerly  applied  to  the  movement  of  measured  versi- 
fication. The  term  has  been  extended  in  its  meaning,  so  as  to 
include  more  than  metre ;  and  it  is  frequently  used  to  designate 
such  things  as  the  roll  of  the  surf,  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  wind, 
the  reverberations  of  thunder,  or  the  swell  of  tones  from  an 
^olian  harp.  In  poetry  the  word  now  signifies  something  very 
different  from  the  formal  divisions  of  lines  into  feet,  and  refers 
to  that  harmony  and  cadence  which  arise  from  the  general  flow 
of  verses,  and  are  marked  by  emphatic  words  and  caesural 
pauses.  Thus  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  is  written  in  the  iambic 
metre,  but  the  rhythm  of  that  poem  is  something  quite  distinct 
from  that  metre,  and  is  very  different  from  the  rhythm  of  any 
other  iambic  poem.  The  truth  of  this  may  be  illustrated  by 
the  following  passage  : 

**  If  thou  be'st  he — but  O,  how  fallen,  how  changed 
From  him  who  in  the  happy  realms  of  light. 
Clothed  with  transcendent  brightness,  didst  outshine 
Myriads,  though  bright  1     If  he,  whom  mutual  league, 


Rhythfu.  277 

United  thoughts  and  counsels,  equal  hope 

And  hazard  in  the  glorious  enterprise, 

Joined  with  me  once,  now  misery  hath  joined 

In  equal  ruin  : — into  what  pit  thou  seest, 

From  what  height  fallen  :• — so  much  the  stronger  proved 

He  with  his  thunder ;   and  till  then  who  knew 

The  force  of  those  dire  arms  ?" 

The  difference  between  the  rhythm  and  the  metre  is  here 
very  strongly  marked,  especially  in  the  last  four  lines.  It  is 
also  discernible  in  all  good  poetry,  and  to  make  this  manifest 
to  the  ear  is  the  chief  work  of  the  elocutionist. 

§  299.    RHYTHM    IN    PROSE. 

The  greatest  writers  of  ancient  and  modern  times  have 
sought  to  infuse  into  their  style  something  which  should  appeal 
to  the  musical  sensibility,  and  many  noble  passages  in  prose 
literature  exert  an  influence  difficult  to  define,  yet  so  powerful 
that  they  affect  the  heart  and  cling  to  the  memory.  Their 
meaning  is  in  such  cases  enlarged  and  reinforced  by  the  sub- 
tle yet  potent  aid  of  harmony  ;  and  while  the  thought  affects 
the  mind,  the  music  charms  the  ear.  Two  things  are  to  be 
observed  in  such  writings :  first,  the  sound  of  the  individual 
words;  and,  secondly,  their  arrangement,  with  the  recurrence 
of  pauses  at  such  intervals  as  shall  produce  a  certain  har- 
monious rise  and  fall  of  tone.  These  constitute  rhythm  in 
prose. 

Many  passages  in  the  English  Bible  exhibit  a  matchless 
beauty  of  rhythm : 

*'  Or  ever  the  silver  cord  be  loosed — or  the  golden  bowl  be  broken — or 
the  pitcher  be  broken  at  the  fountain — or  the  wheel  broken  at  the  cistern. 
Then  shall  the  dust  return  to  the  earth  as  it  was — and  the  spirit  shall  re- 
turn unto  God  who  gave  it." 

"  Lord — thou  hast  been  our  dwelling-place  in  all  generations. 

"  Before  the  mountains  were  brought  forth — or  ever  thou  hadst  formed 
the  earth  and  the  world — even  from  everlasting  to  everlasting — thou  art 
God." 

"These  are  they  which  came  out  of  great  tribulation — and  have  washed 
their  robes — and  made  them  white  in  the  blood  of  the  Lamb." 

If  these  passages  be  read  with  attention  to  the  rhetorical 
pauses,  as  marked,  their  euphonious  flow  and  solemn  and  varied 
rhythm  will  not  fail  to  be  apparent.     It  would  be  difficult  to 


278  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

furnish  any  other  translation  from  their  originals  which  could 
equal  them  in  this  respect. 

Rhythm  in  prose  may  be  defined  as  the  alternate  swelling 
and  lessening  of  sound  at  certain  intervals.  It  refers  tn  the 
general  effect  of  sentences  and  paragraphs,  where  the  words  are 
_chosen  and  arranged  jo_as.,npt  pnT>^6~e~xpTessTHe  meaning  of 
the  \\ rite!,  bul  also  to  furpisb.a  musical  accompaniment  which 
shall  at  once  delight  the  ear  by  its  sop"*^,  ^^d  h^^p  ^"*  the 
'sense  bx  ij?  'T'iuCP'iiT"^"^nffi 

The  magnificent  and  varied  harmonies  which  Milton  loved 
are  not  more  conspicuous  in  his  poetry  than  in  his  prose.  JThe 
following  passagejbias-- often -beeft-quoted- as  an  example  of 
this: 

"  Methinks  I  see  in  mv  mind  a  noble  and  j?uissant  nation,  rousing  herself 
like  a  strode  "'fln  ''*^'"'  '^''*'>pi  «■»**  nKnir;^^  K^r  iavloclble  locks  :  methinks  I 
see  her  as  an  eagle  mewing  her  mighty  youth,  and  kindling  her  undazzled 
eyes  at  the  full  mid-day  beam  ;  purging  and  unsealing  her  long-abused  sight 
at  the  fountain  itself  of  heavenly  radiance;  while  the  whole  noise  of  timor- 
ous and  flocking  birds,  with  those  also  that  love  the  twilight,  flutter  about, 
amazed  at  what  she  means." 

The  following  passage  from  De  Quincey  is  both  a  criticism 
and  an  illustration : 

"  Where  out  of  Sir  Thomas  Browne  shall  we  hope  to  find  music  so  Mil- 
tonic,  an  intonation  of  such  solemn  chords  as  are  struck  in  the  following 
opening  bar  of  a  passage  in  the  Urn  Burial :  'Now  since  these  bones  have 
rested  quietly  in  the  grave,  under  the  drums  and  tramplings  of  three  con- 
quests,' etc  What  a  melodious  ascent  as  of  a  prelude  to  some  impassion- 
ed requiem  breathing  from  the  pomps  of  the  earth  and  from  the  sanctities 
of  the  grave !  What  a  fluctus  decumanus  of  rhetoric  !  Time  expounded 
not  by  generations  or  centuries,  but  by  vast  periods  of  conquests  and  dynas- 
ties ;  by  cycles  of  Pharaohs  and  Ptolemies,  Antiochi  and  Arsacides  !  And 
these  vast  successions  of  time  distinguished  and  figured  by  the  uproars  which 
revolve  at  their  inaugurations — by  the  drums  and  tramplings  rolling  over- 
head upon  the  chambers  of  forgotten  dead — the  trepidations  of  time  and 
mortality  vexing,  at  secular  intervals,  the  everlasting  Sabbaths  of  the  grave  !" 

Burke,  when  conversing  about  the  literary  value  of  his  own 
writings,  declared  that  the  particular  passage  which  had  cost 
him  the  most  labor,  and  upon  which  his  labor  seemed  to  him- 
self to  have  been  the  most  successful,  was  the  following : 

"  Such  are  their  ideas,  such  their  religion,  and  such  their  law.  But  as  to 
our  country  and  our  race,  as  long  as  the  well-compacted  structure  of  our 


Rhythm.  279 

church  and  state — the  sanctuary,  the  holy  of  holies  of  the  ancient  law,  defend- 
ed by  reverence,  defended  by  power,  a  fortress  at  once  and  a  temple — shall 
stand  inviolate  on  the  brow  of  the  British  Sion  ;  as  long  as  the  British  mon- 
archy, not  more  limited  than  fenced  by  the  orders  of  state,  shall,  like  the 
proud  keep  of  Windsor  rising  in  the  majesty  of  proportion,  and  girt  with 
the  double  belt  of  its  kindred  and  coeval  towers ;  as  long  as  this  awful 
structure  shall  oversee  and  guard  the  subjected  land,  so  long  the  mounds 
and  dikes  of  the  low  fat  Bedford  level  will  have  nothing  to  fear  from  all  the 
pickaxes  of  all  the  levellers  of  France.  As  long  as  our  sovereign  lord  the 
king,  and  his  faithful  subjects,  the  lords  and  commons  of  this  realm — the 
triple  cord  which  no  man  can  break  ;  the  solemn  sworn  constitutional  frank- 
pledge of  this  nation  ;  the  firm  guarantees  of  each  other's  being  and  each 
other's  rights ;  the  joint  and  several  securities,  each  in  its  place  and  order 
for  every  kind  and  every  quality  of  property  and  dignity — as  long  as  these 
endure,  so  long  the  Duke  of  Bedford  is  safe  ;  and  we  are  all  safe  together — 
the  high  from  the  blights  of  envy  and  the  spoliations  of  rapacity,  the  low 
,from  the  iron  hand  of  oppression  and  the  insolent  spurn  of  contempt 
Amen'!  and  so  be  it,  and  so  it  will  be — 

*Dum  domus  ^^neae  CapitoH  immobile  saxum 
Accolet,  imperiumque  pater  Romanus  habebit' " 

In  the  style  of  Chalmers  we  find  copiousness  of  thought  and 
affluence  of  diction  with  great  attention  to  rhythmical  effect. 
This  is  shown  in  the  following  extract  from  his  sermon  on  the 
death  of  the  Princess  Charlotte  : 

"  The  nation  has  certainly  not  been  wanting  in  the  proper  expression  of 
poignant  regret  at  the  sudden  removal  of  this  most  lamented  princess,  nor 
of  their  sympathy  with  the  royal  family  deprived  by  this  visitation  of  its 
brightest  ornament.  Sorrow  is  painted  on  every  countenance,  the  pursuits  of 
business  and  of  pleasure  have  been  suspended,  and  the  kingdom  is  covered 
with  the  signals  of  distress.  But  what,  my  friends  (if  it  were  lawful  to  in- 
dulge such  a  thought),  what  would  be  the  funeral  obsequies  of  a  lost  soul } 
Where  shall  we  find  tears  fit  to  be  wept  at  such  a  spectacle,  or,  could  we  re- 
alize the  calamity  in  all  its  extent,  what  tokens  of  commiseration  and  con- 
cern would  be  deemed  equal  to  the  occasion  ?  Would  it  suffice  for  the  sun 
to  veil  his  light  and  the  moon  her  brightness ;  to  cover  the  ocean  with 
mourning  and  the  heavens  with  sackcloth  ;  or,  were  the  whole  fabric  of  nat- 
ure to  become  animated  and  vocal,  would  it  be  possible  for  her  to  utter  a 
groan  too  deep  or  a  cry  too  piercing  to  express  the  magnitude  and  extent 
of  such  a  catastrophe  ?" 

The  writings  of  Carlyle  do  not  abound  in  rhythmical  pas- 
sages, yet  sometimes,  as  in  the  following  case,  his  power  in  this 
way  is  very  striking : 

"  Look  there,  O  man,  born  of  woman  !  The  bloom  of  that  fair  face  is 
wasted,  the  hair  is  gray  with  care ;  the  brightness  of  those  eyes  is  quench- 


28o  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

ed,  their  lids  hang  drooping  ;  the  face  is  stony  pale,  as  of  one  living  in  death. 
Mean  weeds  which  her  own  hand  has  mended  attire  the  queen  of  the  world. 
The  death-hurdle  where  thou  sittest,  pale,  motionless,  which  only  curses  en- 
viron, has  to  stop  ;  a  people  drunk  with  vengeance  will  drink  it  again  in  full 
draught  looking  at  thee  there.  Far  as  the  eye  reaches  a  multitudinous  sea 
of  maniac  heads,  the  air  deaf  with  their  triumph  yell  I" 

The  simple  structure  of  Macaulay's  style  and  his  love  of 
antitheses  are  not  conducive  to  sustained  harmony;  yet  this 
quality  is  not  unfrequently  exhibited,  and  nowhere  in  his  writ- 
ings can  richer  or  more  varied  rhythm  be  found  than  in  his 
famous  description  of  the  Puritans  : 

"  If  they  were  unacquainted  with  the  works  of  philosophers  and  poets, 
they  were  deeply  read  in  the  oracles  of  God.  If  their  names  were  not  found 
in  the  registers  of  heralds,  they  felt  assured  that  they  were  recorded  in  the 
Book  of  Life.  If  their  steps  were  not  accompanied  by  a  splendid  train  of 
menials,  legions  of  ministering  angels  had  charge  over  them.  Their  palaces 
were  houses  not  made  with  hands,  their  diadems  crowns  of  glory  which 
should  never  fade  away.  On  the  rich  and  the  eloquent,  on  nobles  and 
priests,  they  looked  down  with  contempt ;  for  they  esteemed  themselves  rich 
in  a  more  precious  treasure,  and  eloquent  in  a  more  sublime  language ; 
nobles  by  the  right  of  an  earlier  creation,  and  priests  by  the  imposition  of 
a  mightier  hand.  The  very  meanest  of  them  was  a  being  to  whose  fate  a 
mysterious  and  terrible  importance  belonged^-on  whose  slightest  actions 
the  spirits  of  light  and  darkness  looked  with  anxiety — who  had  been  destined 
before  heaven  and  earth  were  created  to  enjoy  a  felicity  which  should  con- 
tinue when  heaven  and  earth  should  have  passed  away.  Events  which 
short-sighted  politicians  ascribed  to  earthly  causes  had  been  ordained  on 
his  account.  For  his  sake  empires  had  risen  and  flourished  and  decayed. 
For  his  sake  the  Almighty  had  proclaimed  his  will  by  the  pen  of  the  evan- 
gelist and  the  harp  of  the  prophet.  He  had  been  rescued  by  no  common 
deliverer  from  the  grasp  of  no  common  foe.  He  had  been  ransomed  by  the 
sweat  of  no  vulgar  agony,  by  the  blood  of  no  earthly  sacrifice.  It  was  for 
him  that  the  sun  had  been  darkened,  that  the  rocks  had  been  rent,  that  the 
dead  had  arisen,  that  all  nature  had  shuddered  at  the  sufferings  of  her  ex- 
piring God !" 

Among  the  musical  terms  which  are  sometimes  used  by  crit- 
ics to  designate  qualities  in  style,  the  word  "bravura"  may  be 
mentioned  as  being  closely  connected  with  the  present  subject, 
and  as  involving  beyond  everything  else  a  sounding  and  varied 
rhythm.  In  the  following  passage  De  Quincey  has  explained 
and  illustrated  this  term  with  unusual  beauty  and  discrimina- 
tion : 

"  In  taking  leave  of  a  book  and  a  subject  so  well  fitted  to  draw  out  the 
highest  mode  of  that  grandeur  which  can  connect  itself  with  the  external 


Rhythtn.  281 

world,  I  would  wish  to  contribute  my  own  brief  word  of  homage  to  this 
grandeur  by  recalling  from  a  fading  remembrance  of  twenty-five  years  back 
a  short  bravura  of  Jean  Paul  Friedrich  Richter.  I  call  it  a  bravura,  as  be- 
ing intentionally  a  passage  of  display  and  elaborate  execution  ;  and  in  this 
sense  I  may  call  it  partly  '  my  own,'  that  at  twenty-five  years'  distance, 
after  one  single  reading,  it  would  not  have  been  possible  for  any  man  to  re- 
port a  passage  of  this  length  without  greatly  disturbing  the  texture  of  the 
composition.  By  altering,  one  makes  it  partly  one's  own;  but  it  is  right  to 
mention  that  the  sublime  turn  at  the  end  belongs  entirely  to  Jean  Paul. 

"'God  called  up  from  dreams  a  man  into  the  vestibule  of  heaven,  saying, 
Come  thou  hither  and  see  the  glory  of  my  house.  And  to  the  servants  that 
stood  around  his  throne  he  said.  Take  him  and  undress  him  from  his  robes 
of  flesh  ;  cleanse  his  vision,  and  put  a  new  breath  into  his  nostrils  ;  only 
touch  not  with  any  change  his  human  heart — the  heart  that  weeps  and  trem- 
bles. It  was  done  ;  and  with  a  mighty  angel  for  his  guide,  the  man  stood 
ready  for  his  infinite  voyage  ;  and  from  the  terraces  of  heaven,  without 
sound  or  farewell,  at  once  they  wheeled  away  into  endless  space.  Some- 
times with  the  solemn  flight  of  angel  wing  they  fled  through  Zaarahs  of 
darkness,  through  wildernesses  of  death  that  divided  the  worlds  of  life ; 
sometimes  they  swept  over  frontiers  that  were  quickening  under  prophetic 
motions  from  God.  Then  from  a  distance  that  is  counted  only  in  heaven 
light  dawned  for  a  time  through  a  sleepy  film  ;  by  unutterable  pace  the  light 
swept  to  them,  they  by  unutterable  pace  to  the  light ;  in  a  moment  the  rush- 
ing of  planets  was  upon  them  ;  in  a  moment  the  blazing  of  suns  was  around 
them.  Then  came  eternities  of  twilight  that  revealed  but  were  not  reveal- 
ed. To  the  right  hand  and  to  the  left  towered  mighty  constellations,  that 
by  self-repetitions  and  answers  from  afar,  that  by  counterpositions,  built  up 
triumphal  gates,  whose  architraves,  whose  archways — horizontal,  upright — 
rested,  rose  at  altitudes,  by  spans  that  seemed  ghostly  from  infinitude.  With- 
out measure  were  the  architraves,  past  number  were  the  archways,  beyond 
memory  the  gates.  Within  were  stars  that  scaled  the  eternities  above, 
that  descended  to  the  eternities  below  ;  above  was  below,  below  was  above, 
to  the  man  stripped  of  gravitating  body  ;  depth  was  swallowed  up  in  height 
unsurmountable,  height  was  swallowed  up  in  depth  unfathomable.  Sud- 
denly, as  thus  they  rode  from  infinite  to  infinite  ;  suddenly,  as  thus  they  tilt- 
ed over  abysmal  worlds,  a  mighty  cry  arose  that  systems  more  mysterious, 
that  worlds  more  billowy — other  heights  and  other  depths — were  coming, 
were  nearer,  were  at  hand.  Then  the  man  sighed  and  stopped,  shuddered 
and  wept.  His  overladen  heart  uttered  itself  in  tears  ;  and  he  said.  Angel, 
I  will  go  no  farther,  for  the  spirit  of  man  aches  with  this  infinity.  Insuffer- 
able is  the  glory  of  God.  Let  me  lie  down  in  the  grave  from  the  persecu- 
tions of  the  Infinite,  for  end,  I  see,  there  is  none.  And  from  all  the  listen- 
ing stars  that  shone  around  issued  a  choral  voice.  The  man  speaks  truly ; 
end  there  is  none  that  ever  yet  we  heard  of  End  is  there  none  }  the  angel 
solemnly  demanded.  Is  there  indeed  no  end,  and  is  this  the  sorrow  that 
kills  you  ?  But  no  voice  answered  that  he  might  answer  himself  Then 
the  angel  threw  up  his  glorious  hands  to  the  heaven  of  heavens,  saying — 
End  is  there  none  to  the  universe  of  God  !  So,  also,  there  is  no  begin- 
ning !'" 


282  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  term  "bravura"  may  also  be  applied  with  equal  appro- 
priateness to  the  following  passage  from  De  Quincey : 

"The  dream  commenced  with  a  music  which  now  I  often  hear  in  dreams, 
a  music  of  preparation  and  of  awakening  suspense  ;  a  music  like  the  open- 
ing of  the  coronation  anthem,  and  which,  like  that,  gave  the  feeling  of  a 
vast  march,  of  infinite  cavalcades  filing  off,  and  the  tread  of  innumerable 
armies.  .  .  .  Then,  like  a  chorus,  the  passion  deepened.  Then  came  sudden 
alarms,  hurryings  to  and  fro,  trepidations  of  innumerable  fugitives,  darkness 
and  lights,  tempest  and  human  faces ;  and  at  last,  with  the  sense  that  all  was 
lost,  female  forms,  and  the  features  that  were  worth  all  the  world  to  me,  and 
but  a  moment  allowed — and  clasped  hands,  and  heart-breaking  partings, 
and  then — everlasting  farewells  ;  and  with  a  sigh  such  as  the  caves  of  hell 
sighed  when  the  incestuous  mother  uttered  the  abhorred  name  of  Death,  the 
sound  \i;is  reverberated— everlasting  farewells,  and  again  and  yet  again  re- 
verberated— everlasting  farewells !" 


CHAPTER  VII. 

QUALITIES  OF  STYLE  ASSOCIATED  WITH  HARMONY. 
§  300.  QUALITIES   OF   STYLE   CONDUCIVE  TO    HARMONY. 

A  TRUE  conception  of  rhetorical  harmony  shows  that  it  is 
associated  with  various  qualities  of  style  and  forms  of  expres- 
sion which  deserve  special  notice. 

1.  Many  of  those  which  have  already  been  considered  under 
the  heads  of  perspicuity  and  persuasiveness  are  of  great  im- 
portance here.  Thus  purity  is  essential ;  for  no  one  can  pre- 
tend to  be  an  elegant  writer  who  is  guilty  of  barbarisms  or 
solecisms.  Precision  also  is  necessary;  for  the  elegant  writer 
should  select  the  word  that  is  best  able  to  convey  the  most 
delicate  shade  of  meaning. 

§  301.   FIGURES   OF   SPEECH. 

2.  Figures  of  speech  also  have  a  close  connection  with  har- 
mony. It  has  already  been  shown  that  however  they  may  be 
classified,  they  nearly  all  tend  to  embellishment.  They  have 
not  only  their  own  peculiar  power,  whether  of  enhancing  the 
importance  of  a  subject,  or  of  illustrating  it,  or  of  giving  it 


Style  Associated  with  Harmony.  283 

greater  emphasis ;  but  they  also  almost  always  confer  uppn  it 
a  certain  charm  which  can  be  gained  in  no  other  way.  'The 
plain  statement  of  a  thing  is  usually  commonplace,  and,  while 
sufficiently  clear  and  intelligible,  is  nothing  more;  but  when 
the  statement  is  made  by  means  of  figurative  language,  it  may 
be  full  of  grace  and  elegance. ) 

While  nearly  all  the  figures  of  speech  have  this  effect,  it  is 
chiefly  manifested  by  the  figures  of  relativity — comparison,  allu- 
sion, and  the  tropes.  Here  the  law  of  association  comes  into 
play ;  and  the  presentation  to  the  mind  of  some  new  and  strik- 
ing image,  connected  with  the  subject  by  the  relation  of  sim- 
ilarity or-^ontrast,  seldom  fails  to  excite  the  sense  of  the 
beautiful.    1 

This  subject  has  already  been  so  fully  treated  of  that 
nothing  further  need  now  be  said ;  but  for  illustrations  of  the 
beauty  of  figures,  reference  may  be  made  to  the  numerous 
examples  already  given. 

§  302.   EASE   OF   STYLE.  . 

3.  The  name  is  its  own  definition,  and  it  can  only  be  ac- 
quired by  attention  to  those  things  in  which  elegance  consists. 
Some  have  by  nature  such  fine  perceptions  that  they  seem  to 
write  almost  without  effort  in  an  easy  and  agreeable  man- 
ner. This  is  principally  evident  in  letter-writing.  De  Quin- 
cey  attributes  to  cultivated  women  a  peculiar  talent,  and 
says: 

"  We  are  satisfied,  from  the  many  beautiful  female  letters  which  we  have 
heard  upon  chance  occasions  from  every  quarter  of  the  empire,  that  they — 
the  educated  women  of  Great  Britain — are  the  true  and  best  depositaries  of 
the  old  mother  idiom. . .  .  Cicero  and  Quintilian,  each  for  his  own  generation, 
ascribed  something  of  the  same  pre-eminence  to  the  noble  matrons  of  Rome; 
and  more  than  one  writer  of  the  Lower  Empire  has  recorded  of  Byzantium 
that  in  the  nurseries  of  that  city  was  found  the  last  home  for  the  purity  of 
the  ancient  Greek." 

Ease  of  style  is  very  different  from  easy  writing.  By  the 
latter  term  is  meant  nothing  more  than  a  careless  and  tedious 
fluency,  and  this  has  led  to  the  saying  that  easy  writing  is 
hard  reading.  But  ease  of  style  includes  gracefulness  and 
precision,  careful  finish,  and  various  other  qualities  which  are 
worth  enumerating. 

N 


284  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

ist.  Smoothness.  By  this  is  meant  simple  euphony,  with- 
out rising  above  the  general  level  of  harmonious  expression,  01 
falling  below  it.  As  a  general  thing  it  is  associated  with  the 
diffuse  style.  Among  the  poets  it  is  illustrated  by  Beattie, 
Shen stone,  Cowper,  Akenside,  Rogers,  and  others.  In  prose 
the  chief  examples  are  to  be  found  in  such  sermons  as  those 
of  Blair  and  Boyd,  the  histories  of  Prescott,  and  the  essays  and 
discourses  of  Edward  Everett. 

2d.  Finish  is  the  exhibition  of  great  care  in  the  choice  and 
arrangement  of  words,  and  the  embellishment  of  style. 

3d.  Delicacy  involves  unusual  discrimination  in  the  applica- 
tion of  words.  It  is  the  union  of  precision  with  elegance.  The 
poetry  of  Pope  exhibits  this  quality,  as  well  as  the  preceding 
one,  in  a  remarkable  degree. 

4th.  Grace  refers  to  taste  and  discernment  of  the  beautiful 
in  thought  and  expression,  with  finish  and  delicacy.  This  is 
pre-eminent  in  the  poetry  of  Keats,  Shelley,  and  Tennyson. 
^  5th.  A  correct  style  is  composition  in  which  attention  is 
paid  to  all  the  rules  derived  from  authoritative  usage,  and 
where  the  imagination  and  the  emotions  are  in  some  measure 
repressed.  It  indicates  rather  a  freedom  from  fault  than  the 
possession  of  positive  attractiveness.  In  poetry  it  used  to  be 
applied  to  writings  after  the  model  of  Pope  and  Dryden,  as 
distinguished  from  the  irregular  construction  of  such  poems  as 
Coleridge's  Christabel.  The  style  of  Addison,  Goldsmith,  and 
Irving  is  correct ;  while  the  term  would  not  be  applied  to  that 
of  Carlyle.  Macaulay  inveighs  against  critics  who  stand  up 
for  correctness,  in  a  passage  which  is  quoted  elsewhere. 

6th.  Chaste.  This  term  is  applicable  to  style  which  is  cor- 
rect and  accompanied  by  the  display  of  imaginative  power,  yet 
nowhere  out  of  control  of  a  cultivated  taste,  or  rising  to  any- 
thing like  fervor.  Thus  Addison  is  chaste  in  style ;  he  satis- 
fies the  taste ;  but  he  never  rises  to  those  exaltations  of  thought, 
feeling,  and  expression  which  are  so  manifest  in  the  writings 
of  Burke. 

These  qualities  all  contribute  towards  ease  of  style,  yet  they 
may  exist  individually  in  a  conspicuous  way,  and  sometimes 
without  necessarily  leading  to  it.  In  general,  it  may  be  said 
that  much  care,  together  with  much  practice,  is  needed  before 
true  ease  of  style  can  be  attained.     This  is  Pope's  opinion: 


Style  Associated  with  Harmony.  285 

"For  ease  in  writing  comes  by  art,  not  chance, 
As  those  move  easiest  who  have  learned  to  dance." 

It  is  also  expressed  in  the  well-known  saying  :  "  Ars  celare 
artem." 

§  303.  ORNAMENT. 

4.  Ornament  enters,  to  a  certain  extent,  into  the  composition 
of  elegance.  The  term  "ornate"  is  applied  to  style  which  is 
characterized  by  unusual  embellishment.  It  is  closely  allied 
to  the  florid,  and  is  liable  to  pass  into  it.  Burke's  writings 
afford  frequent  examples  of  ornament  carried  as  far  as  possible. 
Thus  in  his  panegyric  on  Sheridan  the  epithets  are  heaped 
together  in  profusion,  synonymous  words  are  accumulated,  and 
there  is  a  general  air  of  exaggeration.  His  celebrated  descrip- 
tion of  Marie  Antoinette,  though  highly  ornate  and  sometimes 
extravagant,  is  yet  so  full  of  tenderness  and  deep  emotion  that 
the  reader  has  no  other  feeling  than  admiration  and  sympathy. 
The  language  of  eulogx  is  always  apt  to  run  to  extravagance 
and  over-ornament,  and  the  kind  of  composition  called  "  pan- 
egyric "  is  notoriously,  from  its  very  nature,  excessively  embel- 
lished and  florid. 

Richness  of  style  means  something  ornate,  yet  far  more.  It 
involves  copiousness  of  thought,  excitement  of  imagination,  and 
often  high  emotion.  The  style  of  Ruskin  is  rich,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  following  example  : 

"  Not  long  ago  I  was  slowly  descending  this  very  bit  of  carriage-road,  the 
first  turn  after  you  leave  Albano.  ...  It  had  been  wild  weather  when  I  left 
Rome,  and  all  across  the  Campagna  the  clouds  were  sweeping  in  sulphur- 
ous blue,  with  a  clap  of  thunder  or  two,  and  breaking  gleams  of  sun  along 
the  Claudian  aqueduct,  lighting  up  the  infinity  of  its  arches  like  the  bridge 
of  chaos.  But  as  I  climbed  the  long  slope  of  the  Alban  mount  the  storm 
swept  finally  to  the  north,  and  the  noble  outline  of  the  domes  of  Albano, 
and  the  graceful  darkness  of  its  ilex  grove,  rose  against  pure  streaks  of  al- 
ternate blue  and  amber." 

Elaboration.  This  term  is  applied  to  writings  where  the  style 
is  carefully  corrected,  polished,  and  enriched  with  rhetorical 
embellishment.  Amplification  and  climax  often  present  ex- 
amples of  this. 

A  gorgeous  style  is  the  exhibition  of  great  pomp  and  splen- 
dor, as  in  passages  of  Milton's  prose  works  and  the  writings 
of  Jeremy  Taylor. 


286  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

§  304.  OFFENCES   AGAINST   LITERARY    ELEGANCE. 

There  are  many  vicious  qualities  which  are  chiefly  opposed 
to  literary  elegance,  and  of  these  the  most  conspicuous  will 
now  be  considered. 

§  305.   CARELESSNESS. 

I.  Many  faults  in  style  arise  from  carelessness.  These  are 
twofold  :  first,  carelessness  as  to  one's  work  ;  and,  secondly, 
carelessness  as  to  the  readers  to  whom  it  is  addressed. 

I  St.  Carelessness  as  to  one's  work  leads  to  incorrect  and 
slovenly  composition,  with  obscurity,  inelegance,  redundant 
words,  and  frequent  repetitions. 

A  puerile  style  is  often  the  result  of  this.  The  puerile  is 
marked  by  immaturity  of  thought,  vague  apprehension  of  the 
subject,  trite  and  commonplace  expressions,  tedious  repetitions, 
together  with  lavish  use  of  epithets,  exaggerated  phraseology, 
and  entire  absence  of  precision. 

Abruptness  of  presentation  is  another  result.  This  is  found 
chiefly  in  the  introduction  of  topics  which  are  carelessly  thrust 
forward  when  they  might  be  brought  on  more  gradually  and 
skilfully.  This  is  destructive  to  anything  like  ease  or  elegance 
of  style.  The  most  common  form  of  abrupt  transition  is  seen 
in  the  preachers'  "  first,"  "  secondly,"  "  thirdly,"  used  in  pass- 
ing from  one  head  of  a  discourse  to  another. 

2d.  Carelessness  as  to  the  reader  results  in  such  faults  as 
those  expressed  by  the  words  "  stiflf,"  "  harsh,"  "  dr}',"  and 
"bald."  These  have  much  in  common,  yet  each  word  has 
some  special  signification. 

"  Stiff"  implies  awkwardness  of  expression,  abruptness  of 
transition,  and  a  general  want  of  ease,  elegance,  and  vivacity. 
"Harshness"  may  coexist  with  great  vigor  and  animation,  as 
in  the  case  of  Browning  and  Carlyle  ;  but  in  general  it  indi- 
cates a  style  rough  through  carelessness,  and  without  any  at- 
traction. 

**Dry."  A  dry  style  is  characterized  by  a  total  absence  of 
ornament.  The  writer  seems  indifferent  to  all  the  means  of 
persuasion,  and  exhibits,  none  of  those  qualities  by  which  a 
reader  may  be  pleased.  This  style  is  common  to  didactic 
writings,  to  sermons,  and  to  scientific  and  philosophical  works. 


Style  Associated  with  Harmony.  287 

These  are  often  necessarily  without  ornament,  and  are  there- 
fore called  "  dry  ;"  but  the  word  is  more  properly  applied  to 
those  branches  of  composition  which  are  adapted  to  receive 
rhetorical  treatment,  but  are  destitute  of  it,  owing  to  the  negli- 
gence of  the  writer. 

"  Bald."  This  means  the  absence  of  ornament  where  orna- 
ment is  needed.     Dryden  says : 

"  Hobbes,  in  the  preface  to  his  own  bald  translation  of  Homer,  begins 
the  praise  of  Homer  where  he  should  have  ended  it" 

§  306.  THE    FLORID   STYLE. 

2.  Numerous  faults  arise  from  the  florid  style. 

The  florid  style  resembles  that  which  is  characterized  by 
excessive  diffuseness,  yet  is  sufficiently  different  to  be  readily 
defined.  Excessive  diffuseness  means  the  superabundance  of 
words,  while  the  florid  style  is  a  collection  of  verbose  expres- 
sions supposed  by  the  writer  to  be  beautiful.  The  florid  writer 
is  always  unduly  diff'use ;  but  the  most  diff"use  writer  need  not  by 
any  means  be  florid.  The  florid  style  is  characterized  by  mis- 
placed and  overwrought  imagery,  over-luxuriousness  of  expres- 
sion, false  excitement,  and  the  affectation  of  enthusiasm.  All 
this  is  vicious,  and  is  stigmatized  by  various  epithets  which 
show  how  repugnant  it  is  to  good  taste. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  florid  style  may  be  set  down 
as  follows : 

I  St.  The  excessive  use  of  words. 

2d.  Poetical  words  and  idioms. 

3d.  An  inverted  order  of  words  such  as  is  allowed  only  in 
poetry. 

4th.  Frequent  exclamations* 

5th.  The  affectation  of  enthusiasm. 

With  this  style  may  be  classified  all  those  forms  of  expres- 
sion which  are  marked  by  such  terms  as  "  stilted,"  "  sentimen- 
tal," "  hysterical,"  "  rhapsodical,"  "  rant,"  "  rhodomontade,"  and 
the  like. 

It  is  found  in  many  young  and  ardent  writers  who  are  car- 
ried away  by  enthusiasm,  among  those  who  deal  in  sentiment, 
and  those  who  aim  to  excite  the  emotions.  Writers  upon  relig- 
ious and  moral  subjects  often  fall  into  this.     A  notorious  ex- 


288  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

ample  may  be  found  in  Hervey's  Meditations.  Dickens  has 
been  blamed  for  many  passages  in  which  this  vice  of  style 
appears.  Many  French  writers  are  too  florid  for  English  taste. 
Victor  Hugo  in  his  later  novels,  e.g.,  *'  L'homme  qui  rit,"  has 
given  great  offence.  Lamartine  and  Chateaubriand  are  open 
to  the  same  charge.  In  German  literature  Gesner  is  florid 
and  mawkish  ;  and  even  the  genius  of  Goethe  was  not  superior 
to  the  temptation  of  this  style  in  his  Sorrows  of  Werther. 
Headley's  "Napoleon  and  his  Marshals,"  George  Gilfillan's 
essays,  and  Swinburne's  prose  writings  are  all  chargeable  with 
the  same  fault. 

"  Rhetorical "  is  sometimes  used  as  a  term  of  reproach,  and  is 
applied  to  a  florid  style  in  which  the  ornament  is  too  apparent. 
iEschines  attributes  this  to  Demosthenes,  in  a  phrase  which 
was  meant  to  imply  this  fault :  "  His  style  smells  of  the  lamp." 
Many  critics  consider  Macaulay's  essay  on  Milton  "  rhetorical." 

Brougham  finds  fault  with  the  style  of  Cicero  in  the  follow- 
ing passage  : 

"  The  compositions  of  Cicero,  exquisite  as  they  are  for  beauty  of  diction, 
often  remarkable  for  ingenious  argument  and  brilliant  wit,  not  seldom  ex- 
celling in  deep  pathos,  are  nevertheless  so  extremely  rhetorical,  fashioned 
by  an  art  so  little  concealed,  and  sacrificing  the  subject  to  a  display  of  the 
author's  powers,  admirable  as  those  are,  that  nothing  can  be  less  adapted 
to  the  genius  of  modern  elocution,  which  requires  a  constant  and  almost 
exclusive  attention  to  the  business  in  hand.  In  all  his  orations  which  were 
spoken,  hardly  two  pages  can  be  found  which  a  modern  assembly  would 
bear.  .  .  .  Now  it  is  altogether  otherwise  with  the  Greek  masters.  Chang- 
ing a  few  phrases,  .  .  .  moderating  in  some  degree  the  virulence  of  invec- 
tive, .  .  .  there  is  hardly  one  of  the  political  or  forensic  orations  of  the  Greeks 
that  might  not  be  delivered  in  similar  circumstances  before  our  senate  and 
tribunals ;  while  their  funeral  and  other  panegyrical  discourses  are  much  less 
inflated  and  unsubstantial  than  those  of  the  most  approved  masters  of  the 
epideictic  style — the  French  academicians  and  preachers." 

"  Sentimental "  is  the  expression  of  weak  and  commonplace 
sentiments  in  florid  language  :  as — 

"  Though  it  be  pleasant  to  revel  amid  the  dreams  of  fancy,  or  soar  aloft 
amid  scenes  of  ideal  beauty,  yet  'tis  sweet,  yes,  sweeter  far,  to  read  in  Nat- 
ure's ov\-n  book  the  page  of  living,  eternal,  undying  truth." 

"There  is  a  sublimity  in  nature,  and  there  is  a  sublimity  in  morals.  As 
we  gaze  upon  the  ocean  in  its  wrath,  as  the  forked  lightnings  play  around, 
as  the  billows  bound  and  scatter  their  spray  to  the  clouds,  lofty  emotions 
crowd  in  upon  the  soul." 


Style  Associated  zvith  Harmony.  289 

"  Stilted  "  is  a  term  applied  to  writing  which  is  forced  and 
unnatural.  It  is  characterized  by  mock  enthusiasm  and  ex- 
travagant expressions.  The  word  "  hifalutin  "  has  been  coined 
to  stigmatize  this  fault.  In  the  following  passage  Washington 
is  described  : 

**  Through  every  fibre  of  that  herculean  frame — standing  six  feet  and  six 
inches,  developed  into  matchless  and  symmetrical  beauty — every  passion, 
thought,  and  feeling  that  belongs  to  earth  or  heaven  went  forever  thrilling. 
Not  a  nerve  but  waked  like  a  sensitive  plant  to  every  zephyr  breath  ;  not 
a  muscle  of  that  grand  frame  but  was  as  elastic,  not  a  tendon  that  was  not 
as  hard  as  steel.  He  was  of  all  men  perhaps  gifted  with  the  finest  nervous 
susceptibility  and  the  mightiest  power  of  will ;  for  over  the  broad  expanse 
of  his  nature,  where  the  capabilities  of  terrific  action  lay  reposing,  they  woke 
to  the  summons  of  that  all-controlling  will,  directed  by  supreme  judgment, 
and  arrayed  themselves  for  action  as  divisions  of  a  great  army  answer  the 
signal  to  come  into  line  of  battle.  .  .  .  We  can,  indeed,  say  that  in  all  feats 
of  agility  and  strength;  in  litheness  and  grace  of  form;  in  the  ripened 
beauty  but  half-revealed  powet  of  the  young  Apollo ;  in  early  training  by 
long  exposure  ;  in  climbing  n.ountains,  swimming  winter  rivers  through 
creaking  iee-cakes  ;  working  long  days  under  the  dissolving  heat  of  a  melt- 
ing sun,  and  bound  by  the  frozen  chains  of  arctic  cold,  he  grew  into  a  strength 
and  power  of  endurance  rarely  seen  even  among  the  men  of  his  time,  who 
had  been  spoiled  by  none  of  the  enervating  caresses  of  tender  mothers,  but 
whom  Nature  claimed  as  her  own  hardy  sons  of  the  wilderness;  whom  she 
cradles  in  storms  and  fondles  in  tempests,  as  she  does  the  eagle  and  the 
lion,  whom  she  brings  up  to  do  her  heavy  work." 

"Hysterical."  This  term  is  sometimes  applied  to  a  style 
which  is  excessively  sentimental,  and  fuller  than  usual  of  false 
excitement  and  wild  extravagance.  The  same  style,  when  also 
showing  the  addition  of  personal  confidences  and  overstrained 
feeling,  is  called  *'  gushing." 

"  Rhapsody  "  is  used  to  designate  overwrought  fancies,  and 
a  style  largely  made  up  of  semi-poetical  words  and  phrases. 

"Rant"  is  unbridled  extravagance  of  language  with  much 
enthusiasm. 

"Rhodomontade"  means  indulgence  in  vainglorious  trifling. 

§  307.    THE    PRETENTIOUS   STYLE. 

3.  A  pretentious  style  is  the  expression  of  plain  facts  or  com- 
monplace ideas  in  the  longest  possible  words.  Thus  a  certain 
class  of  so-called  "educationists"  will  define  a  "ball-frame" 
as  an  "  arithmeticon,"  and  explain  to  a  class  of  schoolboys 


290  Elefnents  of  Rhetoric. 

that  the  ordinar)'  stroke  used  in  writing  is  "  the  resultant  force 
from  the  mean  of  the  vertical  and  horizontal  forces."  The 
chief  characteristics  of  a  pretentious  style  are: 

I  St.  The  use  of  words  of  Latin  or  Greek  origin  in  preference 
to  those  derived  from  Anglo-Saxon. 

2d.  The  use  of  long  and  sonorous  words  in  preference  to 
short  and  simple. 

3d.  The  use  of  technical  terms. 

4th.  The  affectation  of  scientific  treatment. 

A  pretentious  style  may  often  be  found  in  writings  which 
deal  with  educational  subjects,  where,  as  above,  the  plainest 
facts,  which  may  be  stated  with  simplicity,  are  expressed  in  the 
ponderous  technicalities  of  scientific  nomenclature.  Other 
writings  may  be  found  on  the  same  subject  which  are  perfectly 
clear  and  perfectly  unpretending.  This  style  is  adopted  under 
the  idea  that  it  will  convey  the  impression  of  superior  knowl- 
edge. In  reality  it  often  conceals  real  ignorance;  for  though 
it  is  certainly  possible  that  one  who  understands  his  subject 
may  be  unfortunate  and  unintelligible  in  his  exposition,  yet  as 
a  rule  he  will  at  least  show  that  he  is  making  an  effort  to  be 
understood. 

It  may  often  be  found  in  sermons,  where  the  preacher,  in 
reward  for  making  himself  thoroughly  unintelligible,  gains  the 
reputation  of  a  "deep  thinker." 

But  the  greatest  scientific  writers  are  quite  free  from  this 
when  addressing  the  general  public.  Hugh  Miller,  Darwin, 
Huxley,  Tyndall,  Tate,  John  Stuart  Mill,  and  others,  have  shown 
that  men  can  handle  the  most  difficult  subjects,  and  yet  make 
themselves  not  only  intelligible,  but  even  pleasing  to  readers 
of  average  intelligence. 

A  pretentious  style  is  often  adopted  by  newspaper  reporters, 
whose  peculiarities  are  amusingly  exemplified  by  Professor 
Lowell  in  the  following  manner : 

PLAIN   STYLE.  PRETENTIOUS   STYLE. 

Was  hanged.  Was  launched  into  eternity. 

When  the  halter  was  put  round  his  When  the  fatal  noose  was  adjusted 
neck.  about  the  neck  of  the  unfortunate  vic- 

tim of  his  own  unbridled  passion. 

A  great  crowd  came  to  see.  A  vast  concourse  was  assembled  to 

witness. 

Great  fire.  Disastrous  conflagration. 


Style  Associated  with  Harmony.  291 

PLAIN    STYLE.  PRETENTIOUS   STYLE. 

The  fire  spread.  The  conflagration  extended  its  de- 

vastating career. 

House  burned.  Edifice  consumed. 

The  fire  was  got  under.  The  progress  of  the  devouring  ele- 

ment was  arrested. 

Man  fell.  The  individual  was  precipitated. 

A  horse  and  wagon  ran  against.  A  valuable  horse  attached  to  a  ve- 

hicle driven  by  J.  S.,  in  the  employ- 
ment of  J.  B.,  collided  with. 

A  bystander  advised.  One  ofthose  omnipresent  characters 

who,  as  if  in  pursuance  of  a  previous 
arrangement,  are  certain  to  be  en- 
countered in  the  vicinity  when  an  ac- 
cident occurs,  ventured  the  sugges- 
tion. 

Other  examples  may  be  found  in  the  following :  "  Recently 
deceased,"  for  "  lately  dead  ;"  "  monumental  marble,"  for 
"  tombstone ;"  "  residence,"  for  "  house  ;"  "  paraphernalia,"  for 
" clothes ;"  " emporium,"  for  " shop ;"  "  encomium,"  for  "praise ;" 
"location,"  for  "place;"  "locate,"  for  "put;"  "attired,"  for 
"clad;"  " individual,"  for  "  person  ;"  "  window  draperies,"  for 
"curtains;"  "entertainment,"  for  "supper;"  "sacred  edifice," 
for  "  church ;"  "vociferation,"  for  "cry;"  "  available  resources," 
for  "income;"  "lower  limb,"  for  "leg;"  "peregrination,"  for 
"walk  ;"  "asphyxiate,"  for  "choke." 

There  are  various  modes  of  the  pretentious  style,  some  of 
which  are  indicated  by  the  following  terms : 

"  Grandiloquent,"  a  pompous  style,  consisting  of  a  great  dis- 
play of  ornate  language. 

"Profound;"  "oracular;"  trite  and  commonplace  ideas  ex- 
pressed with  the  air  of  wisdom  and  originality;  often  put  forth 
after  the  fashion  of  maxims  or  apophthegms.  Tupper's  "  Pro- 
verbial Philosophy"  is  an  example. 

"  Egotistic"  is  applied  to  style  in  which  the  writer  is  perpetu- 
ally thrusting  forward  his  own  personality.  A  proper  modesty 
is  always  in  good  taste,  and  anything  like  self-conceit  in  speaker 
or  writer  is  repulsive.  Egotism  is  only  tolerable  when  accom- 
panied by  wit  and  humor,  or  at  least  sprightliness  and  vivacity. 

The  term  "sesquipedalian"  is  applied  to  words  of  unusual 
length ;  and  to  any  style  in  which  they  are  abundant. 

N  2 


292  Elements  of  Rlutoric, 

§  308.    OSTENTATION. 

4.  Another  vice  of  style  opposed  to  elegance  is  found  in 
various  kinds  of  ostentation,  of  which  the  following  are  the 
most  prominent : 

ist.  Conceit. 

This  word  formerly  meant  "concept,"  that  is,  a  "conception," 
and  implied  a  sentiment,  a  striking  thought.     Thus  Pope : 

"Some  to  conceit  alone  their  works  confine. 
And  glittering  thoughts  struck  out  at  every  line." 

At  present  it  is  used  to  signify  sentiments  that  are  strained 
or  far-fetched,  especially  when  presented  in  the  form  of  figures. 
Thus  Bulwer,  in  his  attack  on  Tennyson,  calls  his  poetry — 

*'A  jingling  medley  of  purloined  conceits, 
Outbabying  Wordsworth,  and  outglittering  Keats." 

A  recent  poem,  A  Riddle  of  Lovers,  contains  such  conceits 
as  "  her  beautiful  singing  holy  soul,"  "  the  shine  of  sharp  soul 
striking  soul." 

"There  is  no  poet's  poesy  would  not 
When  laid  against  the  whiteness  of  her  meek. 
Proud,  solemn  face,  make  there  a  pitiful  blot." 

2d.  Imitations  of  great  writers. 

Every  great  writer  has  hosts  of  admirers  and  imitators. 
Johnson  was  followed  by  a  school  of  writers  who  wrote  John- 
sonese. Carlyle  had  many  imitators;  but  the  race  has  nearly 
died  out.  It  is  the  same  in  poetry.  The  Byron  mania  is  well 
known.  Tennyson  has  been  imitated  for  the  last  thirty  years; 
and  of  late  Swinburne  has  his  followers,  who,  in  the  words  of  a 
critic,  laboriously  search  for  alliterations  to  "  fire"  and  "desire," 
and  painfully  call  upon  our  Lady  of  Pain  to  "  come  down  and 
redeem  them  from  virtue." 

3d.  Another  form  is  found  in  certain  fashions  of  criticism  that 
arise  from  time  to  time.  The  latest  display  of  this  sort  is  the 
application  of  musical  terms  to  painting,  and  of  the  slang  of 
art  to  poetry.  "Mr.  Swinburne's  brilliant  flesh-tints;"  "Mr. 
Morris's  low -toned  colors;"  "a  most  charming  symphony  in 
red ;"  "  a  perfect  sonnet  in  oils,"  are  phrases  which  represent 
this  newest  fashion  in  the  world  of  letters. 


Style  Associated  with  Harmony,  293 

§  309.    VULGARITY. 

5.  Various  faults  of  style  arise  through  vulgarity. 

There  are  some  who  try  to  leap  at  once  into  ease  of  writing. 
They  read  the  essays  of  an  author  like  Thackeray,  and  make 
the  attempt  to  rival  him,  without  being  conscious  of  the  differ- 
ence between  a  great  master  and  a  young  beginner.  Unwilling 
to  go  through  the  labor  that  is  necessary  to  prepare  them  for 
such  a  task,  or  ignorant  that  such  labor  is  required,  they  rush 
at  once  into  as  close  an  imitation  of  their  model  as  they  can 
contrive.  Any  real  imitation,  under  such  circumstances,  is  not 
generally  effected.  What  is  liveliness  and  sprightiiness  in  the 
one,  becomes  in  the  other  coarseness  and  sheer  vulgarity.  In 
order  to  appear  quite  at  their  ease,  they  make  free  use  of  collo- 
quialisms; and  intending  to  be  elegant,  they  are  simply  imper- 
tinent. In  writing,  as  in  actual  life,  where  one  forces  himself 
to  appear  at  ease,  the  result  will  be  that  he  overdoes  it,  and 
makes  himself  awkward  and  disagreeable.  To  this  sort  of  vul- 
garity may  be  applied  the  well-known  saying,  "  The  ass  would 
imitate  the  lapdog ;"  or  Burke's  words,  "  It  is  the  contortions 
of  the  sibyl  without  the  inspiration." 

Another  form  of  vulgarity  is  found  where  there  is  an  appeal 
to  low  motives,  such  as  prejudice,  local  feeling,  snobbishness; 
together  with  low  expressions — the  slang  of  little  cliques  or  so- 
cieties and  the  like. 

Sometimes  the  language  is  awkward.  This  is  seen  in  the 
use  of  words  that  are  not  expressive  of  one's  meaning,  and  in 
badly  arranged  phrases  and  sentences. 

Buffoonery  is  a  species  of  vulgarity.  It  is  the  lowest  kind  of 
wit,  if,  indeed,  it  can  be  called  wit.  It  is  coarse  and  clownish 
humor,  the  meanest  exhibition  of  the  sense  of  the  ridiculous. 
It  is  seen  in  "Joe  Millerisms,"  coarse  jokes,  scurrilities,  low 
personalities,  and  also  in  vulgar  jesting  upon  sacred  themes. 


PART  IV. 

METHOD. 


CHAPTER   I. 

SUBJECT-MATTER. 
S  310.    METHOD    DEFINED. 

Before  entering  upon  the  work  of  composition  it  is  neces- 
sary to  gather  up  material,  and  arrange  it  into  some  kind  of 
order.  This  material  is  called  subject-matter,  that  is,  matter 
relating  to  the  subject  under  consideration. 

Method  may  be  defined  as  the  choice  and  arrangement  of 
the  subject-matter  of  composition,  as  distinguished  from  style, 
which  is  the  manner  o^  its  expression  in  words. 

Various  other  terms  are  frequently  applied.  Thus  in  fiction, 
whether  narrative  or  dramatic,  it  is  often  called  "  plot ;"  in  es- 
says, speeches,  and  many  works  aiming  at  persuasion,  it  is 
called  "analysis;"  in  sermons  the  word  "skeleton"  is  popular- 
ly used;  and,  finally,  the  word  "argument"  is  of  frequent  ap- 
plication.    Method  includes  all  these. 

Method,  according  to  the  above  definition,  may  be  consid- 
ered under  two  general  divisions:  First,  the  choice  of  subject- 
matter,  or  invention;  secondly,  the  arrangement  of  subject- 
matter. 

§  311.    SUBJECT-MATTER. 

Subject-matter  maybe  regarded  from  a  twofold  point  of  view : 
first,  with  reference  to  the  mode  in  which  it  is  presented ;  and, 
secondly,  with  reference  to  its  own  character. 

Subject  matter,  when  considered  with  reference  to  the  mode 


Subject-Matt  er.  295 

in  which  it  is  presented,  assumes  various  forms,  which  consti- 
tute the  leading  departments  of  literature.  These  may  be  set 
down  in  the  following  order  : 

I.  Description.  2.  Narration.  3.  Exposition.  4.  Oratory. 
5.  Dialogue.     6.  Drama.     7.  Poetry. 

Each  of  these  departments  of  literature  has  its  own  charac- 
t(5r,  and  for  its  successful  treatment  requires  peculiar  qualities 
in  the  writer,  who  does  not  often  attain  to  real  excellence  in 
more  than  one. 

Description  is  the  representation  of  things  observed  at  any 
one  point  of  time. 

Narration  is  the  report  of  a  succession  of  events  observed  in 
the  order  of  time. 

Exposition  is  that  kind  of  composition  which  deals  with  its 
subject-matter  by  a  process  of  reasoning,  so  as  to  reach  a  cer- 
tain conclusion  through  the  discussion  of  facts  or  principles. 

Oratory  is  a  form  of  exposition  tending  to  persuasion. 

Dialogue  is  the  consideration  of  a  subject  by  more  than 
one. 

Drama  is  the  visible  representation  of  the  acts  and  passions 
of  men. 

Poetry  constitutes  a  literature  in  itself,  with  its  own  peculiar 
characteristics.  It  is  the  expression  of  thought  or  feeling  by 
modes  which  imply  an  excited  or  elevated  imagination. 

In  description,  narration,  and  the  drama,  the  subject-matter 
refers  chiefly  to  objects  or  events. 

In  exposition,  oratory,  and  dialogue,  the  subject-matter  refers 
chiefly  to  theories  or  principles. 

Poetry  is  more  comprehensive  than  any  other  department  of 
literature.  It  may  enter  into  description,  narration,  exposition, 
dialogue,  the  drama,  or  even  oratory,  and  may  therefore  have 
the  subject-matter  peculiar  to  these. 

Subject-matter,  when  considered  with  reference  to  its  own 
character,  is  divisible  into  two  parts  : 

1.  When  it  refers  to  facts  which  are  to  be  described  or  nar- 
rated. 

2.  When  it  refers  to  principles  which  are  to  be  discussed. 

It  is  evident  that  the  same  kind  of  subject-matter  is  required 
for  description  and  narration,  whether  these  are  set  forth  di- 
rectly or  indirectly,  in  prose  or  poetry,  in  dialogue  or  the  drama; 


296  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

while  for  exposition,  oratory,  the  expository  parts  of  poetry,  di- 
alogue, or  the  drama,  there  is  required  that  kind  of  subject- 
matter  which  is  adapted  to  exposition.  The  first  of  these 
classes  may  therefore  be  called  narrative  subject-matter,  and 
the  second  expository. 

Narrative  subject-matter  consists  chiefly  of  facts  and  occur- 
rences, and  may  be  illustrated  by  such  works  as  the  Iliad  of 
Homer,  the  History  of  Herodotus,  Shakespeare's  Macbeth,  and 
Scott's  Waverley  Novels. 

Expository  subject-matter  consists  chiefly  of  theories  or  prin- 
ciples, and  may  be  illustrated  by  the  works  of  Plato,  Cicero. 
Locke,  and  Berkeley'.  y.ut»^«w^  >l-  a^^^^^^-y  juW^t^ZWci^^, 

These  two  kinds  of  subject-matter  are  often  found  intermin- 
gled, or  side  by  side,  as  when  a  narrative  of  facts  is  associated 
with  the  discussion  of  principles.  Examples  of  this  may  be 
found  in  Plato's  Apology  of  Socrates,  the  oration  of  Demosthe- 
nes on  the  Crown,  and  Burke's  speech  at  the  Bristol  election. 


CHAPTER  11. 

THE  PURPOSE  OF  THE  WRITER. 
§  312.    THE    PURPOSE    OF    THE    WRITER. 

Invention,  being,  as  we  have  seen,  the  selection  and  accu- 
mulation of  subject-matter,  is  also  concerned  with  the  purpose 
of  the  writer. 

Every  kind  of  composition  has  some  aim  or  purpose,  and 
these  are  numerous,  but  may  be  reduced  to  a  few  classes. 
First,  the  aim  of  the  writer  may  be  to  instruct;  secondly,  to 
convince ;  thirdly,  to  persuade ;  and,  fourthly,  to  please. 

.    §  313.  the  aim  to  instruct. 

I.  The  aim  of  the  writer  may  be  to  instruct.  This  presup- 
poses more  or  less  ignorance  of  the  subject  on  the  part  of  the 
reader. 

Under  this  class  may  be  included  all  works  in  which  any 
kind  of  information  is  conveyed.     These  comprehend  a  large 


The  Purpose  of  the  Writer.  297 

proportion  of  narrative  and  descriptive  writing,  such  as  histo- 
ries, biographies,  and  books  of  travel.  Prose  fiction  also  will 
frequently  show  the  aim  to  instruct;  more  particularly  the  his- 
torical novel,  of  which  Quentin  Durward  may  be  taken  as  an 
example.  The  tales  of  Louisa  Miihlbach  afford  perhaps  a  bet- 
ter instance,  for  in  these  the  information  which  the  author  in- 
tends to  convey  quite  overshadows  those  minor  details  upon 
which  other  writers  of  fiction  are  wont  to  enlarge. 

Expository  writings  often  have  this  for  a  prominent  aim,  for 
instruction  is  largely  communicated  in  this  way,  although  their 
chief  purpose  is  most  frequently  to  convince  or  persuade. 
Hooker's  Ecclesiastical  Polity  and  Bacon's  Advancement  of 
Learning  are  conspicuous  examples,  for  although  the  polemical 
spirit  is  visible,  yet  the  purpose  of  instruction  is  certainly  in. 
the  ascendant.  To  these  may  be  added  that  vast  body  of 
scientific  literature,  whether  didactic,  moral,  or  religious,  where 
the  aim  is  to  enlarge  the  sum  of  human  knowledge. 

Poetry  often  exhibits  the  same  purpose,  as,  for  example,  Vir- 
gil's Georgics;  Horace's  Ars  Poetica;  Pope's  Essay  on  Criti- 
cism. 

§  314.    THE   AIM    TO   CONVINCE. 

2.  The  aim  may  be  to  convince.  Here  the  writer  presup- 
poses in  the  reader  not  ignorance,  but  a  difference  of  opinion  ; 
and  his  aim  is  to  effect  a  change  in  that  opinion  towards  his 
own  point  of  view. 

This  is  chiefly  confined  to  expository  writings.  It  may  be 
seen  in  philosophical  works,  such  as  those  of  Locke,  Berkeley, 
Hume,  Reid,  and  others;  while  in  theological  works  it  is  equal- 
ly prevalent,  especially  in  those  of  a  polemical  character.  It 
is  sometimes  found  in  oratory,  which  is  almost  always  designed 
either  to  convince  or  persuade,  although  the  latter  purpose  is 
more  frequent  than  the  former. 

This  purpose — to  convince — may  be  found  in  departments 
of  literature  where  it  is  least  expected.  It  might  be  shown 
that  the  aim  of  such  a  work  as  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  is  to  display 
the  evils  of  American  slavery,  and  thus  by  means  of  highly  col- 
ored facts  to  convince  the  reader  of  the  necessity  of  the  over- 
throw of  that  institution. 

It  may  also  be  observed  in  that  large  class  of  works  of  fic- 
tion known  as  religious  novels,  which  are  a  characteristic  of  the 


298  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

present  day,  of  which  a  well-known  example  is  the  Schonberg- 
Cotta  Family.  In  all  of  these,  the  effort  of  the  author  to  con- 
vince the  reader  of  the  truth  of  his  own  views  is  as  evident  as 
that  of  the  writer  who  puts  forth  his  opinions  in  expository 
works. 

§  315.    THE   AIM   TO   PERSUADE. 

3.  The  aim  may  be  to  persuade.  Here,  as  in  the  previous 
case,  the  writer  seeks  to  bring  over  the  reader  to  his  own  point 
of  view.  He  does  not,  however,  presuppose  any  difference  of 
opinion,  but  may  regard  the  reader  as  ignorant  or  indifferent ; 
or  he  may  even  conceive  of  him  as  already  on  his  own  side,  but 
waiting  for  further  stimulus  to  approach  nearer. 

Conviction  refers  chiefly  to  the  understanding,  which  it  affects 
by  arguments;  persuasion,  on  the  other  hand,  while  it  also  ap- 
peals to  the  understanding,  goes  beyond  it,  and  appeals  still 
farther  to  the  will.  It  seeks  to  attain  its  purpose,  first,  by 
showing  that  the  thing  in  question  is  right  or  wrong;  and,  sec- 
ondly, that  it  is  desirable  or  otherwise.  It  therefore  makes  use 
not  only  of  those  arguments  that  are  addressed  to  the  reason, 
but  also  of  those  which  appeal  to  the  passions. 

Persuasion  is  more  powerful  than  conviction,  first,  because 
men  are  always  moved  more  readily,  and  at  the  same  time 
more  forcibly,  by  their  feelings  than  by  their  reason ;  secondly, 
because  even  when  the  reason  is  convinced,  men  are  not  al- 
ways ready  to  follow  out  their  convictions.  This  is  a  well- 
known  fact  in  human  nature,  and  it  has  given  rise  to  familiar 
maxims  and  proverbs,  such  as : 

"  Silenced,  but  not  convinced." 

"  Video  meliora  proboque  deteriora  sequor." 

"  He  that  complies  against  hb  will,  is  of  the  same  opinion  still." 

This  purpose  enters  so  largely  into  literature  that,  as  we 
have  seen,  rhetoric  has  been  defined  as  the  "  art  of  persua- 
sion." 

Narrative  works  exhibit  it  in  those  histories  which  are  writ- 
ten with  a  bias,  where  the  author  endeavors  to  inculcate  his 
own  sentiments;  in  biographies,  where  the  writer  endeavors  to 
win  over  the  reader  to  his  own  view  of  the  subject  by  present- 
ing it  in  the  most  attractive  manner.  It  also  appears  in  prose 
fiction,  in  all  those  works  which  are  composed  for  (he  purpose 


The  Purpose  of  the  Writer.  299 

of  inculcating  some  lesson.  Thus  the  Pilgrim's  Progress  seeks 
to  draw  man  to  a  religious  life;  Johnson's  Rasselas  recom- 
mends high  morals  and  integrity;  The  Vicar  of  Wakefield  al- 
lures by  its  display  of  the  simple  virtues  of  humble  piety.  AH 
fables,  parables,  and  allegories  have  the  same  purpose. 

In  expository  writings  the  aim  is  more  directly  stated,  though 
not  with  greater  power.  Within  this  class  are  included  all 
those  works  which  are  written  for  the  purpose  of  recommend- 
ing virtue  and  religion,  or  for  inculcating  truth,  or  for  dissemi- 
nating new  doctrines.  Examples  of  this  may  be  found  in  near- 
ly all  the  leading  essayists — Bacon,  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  Addi- 
son, Steele,  Johnson,  Macaulay,  De  Quincey,  Carlyle,  Emerson, 
and  many  others. 

Oratory  is  pre-eminently  the  art  of  persuasion,  having  thus 
gained  <he  title  which  was  once  applied  to  rhetoric.  For  the 
orator  by  his  very  attitude  finds  it  his  best  interest  to  conciliate 
the  audience,  and  he  does  this  in  many  ways,  among  which  the 
most  inrtuential  is  to  assume  that  they  are  not  altogether  op- 
posed to  him,  or  that  at  least  they  are  impartial.  Hence  he 
aims  not  so  much  at  conviction,  for  that  is  directed  to  those 
who  are  acknowledged  as  opposed,  as  at  persuasion,  which  is 
directed  towards  those  who  are  supposed  to  be  at  least  ready 
lo  listen.  Thus,  in  all  his  efforts  to  conciliate,  to  find  some 
common  ground  for  himself  and  for  his  audience,  he  seeks  to 
identify  himself  as  far  as  possible  with  them,  so  that  he  is  forced 
by  the  exigency  of  the  case  to  draw  them  by  persuasion  rather 
than  compel  them  by  conviction.  And  so,  even  where  there  is 
the  most  vehement  antagonism  to  others,  as  that  of  Demosthe- 
nes and  rEschines  against  one  another,  or  that  of  Cicero  against 
Catiline,  or  Burke  against  Hastings,  or  Webster  against  Hayne, 
the  orator  never  loses  sight  of  the  aim  to  persuade  his  hearers. 
Of  this  nature  was  the  fervid  oratory  of  St.  Paul,  which  led 
Agrippa  to  exclaim,  "  Almost  thou  persuadest  me  to  be  a 
Christian" — words  which,  in  whatever  way  we  may  interpret 
them,  testify  to  the  earnest  purpose  of  the  apostle. 

We  may  perceive  the  same  thing  in  poetry,  but  nowhere 
more  strikingly  displayed  than  in  the  lyrical  department.  Here 
the  appeal  is  uniformly  to  the  passions.  In  all  the  various 
kinds  of  lyric  poems,  secular  or  sacred,  the  effect  is  strong,  and 
sometimes  irresistible;  and  it  is  this  truth  that  gives  point  to 


300  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

the  celebrated  saying  of  Fletcher  of  Saltoun  :  "  I  knew  a  very 
wise  man  who  believed  that,  if  a  man  were  permitted  to  make 
all  the  ballads,  he  need  not  care  who  should  make  the  laws  of 
a  nation." 

Didactic  poetry  shows  the  same  purpose ;  as  in  Young's  Night 
Thoughts,  Thomson's  Seasons,  Cowper's  Task,  and  others. 

§  316.    THE   AIM    TO    PLEASE. 

4.  The  aim  of  the  writer  may  be  to  please.  Here  the  inten- 
tion is  to  impart  gratification  or  pleasure  without  any  direct  ef- 
fort to  instruct  or  to  persuade,  although  this  also  may  be  the 
result.  This  will  be  found  the  animating  principle  of  a  large 
proportion  of  the  works  of  the  imagination,  both  in  prose  and 
poetry. 

This  was  manifestly  the  first  aim  of  the  Iliad  and  the  Odys- 
sey, and  the  vast  body  of  epic  song  belonging  to  the  Trojan 
epopoeia.  In  these  we  find  much  to  instruct  and  persuade,  but 
these  are  all  subordinate  to  the  main  purpose,  which  is  to 
please,  for  the  very  exercise  of  the  imagination  which  gives 
pleasure  to  the  author  is  presented  to  others,  so  that  they  shall 
have  the  same  pleasure;  and  all  the  artifices  of  poetry — its 
euphony,  its  measures,  its  diction,  and  its  figures — tend  to  this. 
Homer  has  been  called  the  father  of  "story-tellers,"  and  after 
him  have  come  his  descendants,  the  "story-tellers"  of  all  ages, 
who  are  content  with  the  simple  aim  of  giving  delight  to  those 
who  may  choose  to  listen. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  the  Arabians  turned  aside  from  scientific 
pursuits  to  revel  in  the  charms  of  that  prose  fiction  which  we 
know  so  well  under  the  name  of  the  "Thousand  and  One 
Nights."  The  literature  of  Christendom  arose  out  of  the  met- 
rical romance,  in  which  was  included  all  that  vast  body  of  po- 
etry belonging  to  the  Carlovingian  and  Arthurian  epopoeias. 
Chaucer  was  a  story-teller,  and  Spenser  also ;  while  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  who  revived  the  metrical  romance,  had  the  same  aim  in 
poems  and  novels. 

In  prose  fiction  this  is  still  more  evident,  for  this  is  the  first 
aim  of  the  modern  novel.  Among  novelists  there  are  many 
who  have  attained  to  the  highest  places  of  literature :  Walter 
Scott,  who  in  creative  genius  stands  next  to  Shakespeare ; 
Thackeray,  who  in  purity  of  English  may  stand  beside  Addi- 


The  Purpose  of  the  Writer.  301 

son ;  George  Eliot,  who  shows  a  Baconian  capacity  for  max- 
ims; Dickens,  who  draws  all  the  world  after  him.  Such  wri- 
ters as  these  have  set  out  first  with  the  design  to  please,  but 
they  have  added  more  to  this ;  and  by  their  genius  they 
have  raised  the  novel  to  the  place  which  once  was  held  by 
the  drama. 

In  dramatic  literature  the  author's  first  purpose  is  also  to 
please.  The  drama  may  be  defined  as  a  story  told  by  dialogue 
and  by  action.  It  is  essential  to  its  success,  nay,  even  to  its 
very  existence,  that  the  spectator  be  entertained;  and  even 
when  the  writer  has  a  higher  motive  than  mere  pleasure,  he 
must  keep  this  steadily  in  view.  Hence,  while  tragedy  may  be 
created  from  various  motives,  and  may  show  the  aim  to  please 
only  in  an  inferior  way,  comedy  elevates  it  to  the  chief  posi- 
tion. 

In  expository  writings,  the  aim  to  please  is  chiefly  seen 
in  essays,  such  as  those  of  Addison,  Lamb,  and  Thackeray. 
These  often  belong  in  part  to  humorous  composition,  but  the 
humorous  itself  may  be  called  an  effort  to  please  in  a  peculiar 
direction. 

§  317.    THE   UNION   OF   DIFFERENT   AIMS. 

These  various  purposes  have  been  considered  separately  for 
the  sake  of  convenience,  but  in  reality  they  do  not  often  exist 
separately,  being  generally  found  in  union  with  one  another. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  with  conviction  and  persuasion, 
which  are  united  so  frequently  that  many  rhetoricians  regard 
them  as  inseparable.  In  order  to  have  a  complete  view  of  this 
subject,  it  will  now  be  necessary  to  notice  the  chief  cases  in 
which  they  are  thus  united. 

I.  Where  the  chief  purpose  is  to  instruct,  and  the  subordi- 
nate to  convince  or  persuade. 

This  is  most  visible  in  historical  works.  Every  historian 
has  certain  views  of  his  own  which  appear  in  his  writings,  and 
are  often  urged  upon  the  reader.  Thus,  while  the  first  aim  of 
history  is  generally  to  instruct,  there  is  the  subsidiary  aim  to 
persuade  the  reader  to  adopt  the  writer's  own  opinions.  In 
Clarendon's  history,  the  instruction  imparted  is  associated  with 
the  author's  evident  devotion  to  the  Stuart  cause.  In  Gibbon's 
great  work,  the  information  conveyed  is  often  modified  and 


302  Elements  of  Rhetork. 

colored  by  insinuations  against  Christianity,  made  by  a  writer 
who  has  been  described  by  Byron  as — 

"Sapping  a  solemn  creed  with  solemn  sneer» 
The  lord  of  irony." 

Macaulay,  while  he  instructs  us  in  English  history,  exhibits 
his  strong  \Vhig  s\nnpathies;  and  Lingard  shows  his  Roman 
Catholic  proclivities  while  treating  of  the  same  subject.  Among 
the  numerous  histories  of  Greece,  some  advocate  monarchy, 
others  republicanism.  This  is  the  meaning  of  one-sidedness  or 
partiality  in  the  historian.  In  the  generality  of  cases  he  must 
show  this,  for  an  author  must  needs  feel  some  deep  interest  in 
his  subject  in  order  to  write  well,  and  this  interest  naturally 
shows  itself  in  a  partisan  spirit  It  is  not  every  one  who  can 
write  like  Thucydides,  and  give  instruction  for  all  time  in  such 
a  way  that  his  own  personalit)"  is  sunk,  and  his  personal  feel- 
ings or  sympathies  shall  be  a  matter  of  dispute  or  conjecture. 
The  bitterness  of  Tacitus  is  so  intense  that  he  has  been  charged 
with  exaggeration,  and  Josephus  is  accused  by  De  Quincey  of 
treason  to  his  people,  and  corrupt  subser\nency  to  Roman  in- 
terests. 

>  The  same  union  of  purposes  may  be  found  in  oratory,  for  the 
speaker  often  has  occasion  to  indulge  in  narration  or  descrip- 
tion which  is  made  use  of  to  advocate  his  own  views.  Thus 
Demosthenes,  in  his  oration  on  the  Crown  already  alluded  to, 
gives  ver\'  valuable  instruction  where  he  goes  over  the  history 
of  his  life  and  policy,  while  in  addition  to  this  he  maintains  that 
his  policy  was  right  and  honorable.  In  the  greater  part  of 
Burke's  speeches,  apart  from  the  argument,  there  will  be  found 
the  most  valuable  information  on  many  subjects. 

In  science,  philosophy,  and  theology,  instruction  is  given  by 
the  statement  of  the  leading  truths,  doctrines,  or  facts,  while  the 
effort  to  persuade  or  convince  is  seen  in  the  author's  advocacy 
of  his  own  views  or  theories. 

2.  Where  the  chief  purpose  is  to  instruct,  and  the  subordinate 
to  please. 

These  are  blended,  as  a  popular  way  of  conveying  informa- 
tion. Thus  in  books  of  travel  we  find  the  narrative  of  impor- 
tant facts  combined  with  amusing  adventures.  To  this  class 
belong  those  histories  which  are  told  in  a  lively  style  and  filled 


The  Purpose  of  the  Writer,  303 

with  entertaining  anecdotes.  Suetonius  affords  an  example  of 
tiiis,  and  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson  shows  the  same  inter- 
mixture of  instruction  and  amusement. 

In  oratory  the  modern  lecture  may  be  mentioned,  if,  indeed, 
it  be  proper  to  consider  this  as  oratory.  Here  knowledge  is 
often  imparted,  while  the  aim  to  please  is  manifest  by  the  ef- 
forts which  the  lecturer  makes  to  attract  and  retain  the  atten- 
tion of  his  hearers. 

Modern  science  resorts  largely  to  this  as  a  means  of  com- 
mending itself  to  the  public,  and  illustrations  might  be  drawn 
from  numerous  works  with  which  all  are  familiar.  The  lead- 
ing savans  do  not  disdain  the  work  of  giving  pleasure,  and  the 
writings  of  Darwin,  Huxley,  Tyndall,  Proctor,  and  others,  may 
be  mentioned  as  conspicuous  examples  of  works  which  please 
while  they  instruct. 

3.  Where  the  chief  aim  is  to  convince  or  persuade,  and  the 
subordinate  to  please. 

In  nearly  all  the  narrative  works  already  mentioned,  as  ex- 
hibiting a  desire  to  persuade,  an  effort  to  please  is  also  percep- 
tible. For  the  historian  or  biographer  is  generally  desirous  of 
affording  entertainment  to  his  reader,  so  as  to  lead  him  with 
him. 

In  controversial  writings  the  effort  to  convince  or  persuade 
is  often  associated  with  entertainment  in  the  shape  of  ridicule 
directed  against  the  adversary.  To  anything  like  this  men 
always  listen  with  pleasure,  and  are  insensibly  affected  by  it. 
For  ridicule  is  a  potent  weapon  of  offence,  and  affects  the  will 
instantaneously,  and  often  permanently. 

4.  Where  the  chief  aim  is  to  please,  and  the  subordinate  to 
instruct. 

Examples  of  this  are  to  be  found  in  the  works  of  the  imagi- 
nation. Thus  in  such  poems  as  the  Iliad  the  first  aim  is  un- 
doubtedly to  please ;  but  the  poet  brings  forward  so  many  ad- 
mirable scenes  and  characters,  and  gives  utterance  to  so  many 
pregnant  sayings,  that  no  one  can  avoid  receiving  valuable  les- 
sons. This  is  also  visible  in  dramatic  literature  and  in  prose 
fiction,  in  fables,  parables,  and  allegories. 

5.  Where  the  chief  purpose  is  to  please,  and  the  subordinate 
to  convince  or  persuade. 

This  is  found  in  those  works  of  fiction  which  are  designed  to 


304  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

affect  the  opinions  of  the  reader.  In  some  of  these  the  first  aim 
is  mani^Stly  to  convince  or  persuade,  and  the  effort  to  please 
is  but  faint;  but  in  the  majority  of  them  the  higher  purpose  is 
veiled,  or  kept  in  a  subordinate  position.  Religious  novels,  and 
other  stories  written,  as  the  saying  is,  "  with  a  purpose,"  afford 
examples.  Thus  Thackeray  makes  war  on  the  shams  and  con- 
ventionalisms of  modern  society ;  Dickens  in  his  various  nov- 
els seeks  to  overthrow  some  conspicuous  abuse;  the  later  works 
of  Lord  Lytton  show  the  same  tendency;  and  at  the  present 
day  a  large  proportion  of  works  of  fiction  display  an  attempt 
to  inculcate  certain  views  of  the  author. 

This  is  very  evident  in  lyrical  poetry.  Great  songs,  such  as 
those  of  Burns,  or  the  Marseillaise,  please  by  their  music,  their 
rhythm,  their  imagery,  yet  sway  the  feelings  with  irresistible 
power,  and  thus  exhibit  the  most  effective  kind  of  persuasion. 


CHAPTER   III. 
MODES  OF  INVENTION. 


§  318.   INVENTION    IS   OF   TWO    KINDS. 

Invention,  or  the  finding  of  subject-matter,  is  of  two  kinds. 
The  first  is  where  the  writer  gathers  the  subject-matter  from 
external  sources.  This  may  be  called  accumulative  invention. 
The  second  is  where  the  writer  supplies  the  subject-matter  by 
the  creative  faculty  of  his  own  mind.  This  may  be  called 
creative  invention. 

These  kinds  of  invention  are  quite  distinct,  and  require  sep- 
arate consideration. 

§  319.  accumulative  invention. 

By  accumulative  invention  is  meant  the  finding  of  subject- 
matter  by  study,  research,  testimony,  or  observation.  The 
subject-matter  of  the  earlier  historians,  Herodotus  and  Thucyd- 
ides,  arose  from  observation  and  testimony ;  those  of  Gibbon 
and  Macaulay  from  study  and  research. 

Accumulative  invention  may  also  be  seen  in  other  narra- 


Modes  of  Invention.  305 

tives,  whether  poetry  or  prose,  where  the  writer  lacks  originality. 
Roman  writers  are  conspicuous  for  this.  Plautus  and  Terence 
adapted  Greek  plays,  or  translated  them.  Virgil  did  not  cre- 
ate the  materials  for  the  ^^neid,  but  took  them  from  existing 
sources,  and  presented  them  with  but  little  change. 

Accumulative  invention  is  found,  first,  in  narratives  made 
up  of  fiicts  of  actual  occurrence,  with  which  the  writer  has  be- 
come acquainted  in  any  way  ;  secondly,  in  all  works  of  the 
imagination,  where  the  incidents  have  not  been  originated  by 
the  writer,  but  drawn  from  other  sources. 

Accumulative  invention  may  also  be  seen  in  expository  sub- 
ject-matter. 

ist.  In  writing  intended  to  instruct,  where  the  subject-matter 
is  the  result  of  research,  as  in  Quintilian's  Institutes  of  Oratory. 

2d.  Where  the  reasoning  is  based  upon  facts  of  actual  oc- 
currence, as  in  Burke's  speech  on  the  Nabob  of  Arcot,  or 
Sheridan's  speech  on  Warren  Hastings. 

In  accumulative  invention  the  subject-matter  may  be  imme- 
diately furnished  by  the  memory,  so  that  no  preliminary  labor 
may  be  needed ;  but  it  is  evident  that  this  labor  has  already 
taken  place  in  some  way  from  the  existence  of  those  very 
things  with  which  the  memory  has  been  supplied. 

In  accumulative  invention  the  faculties  of  the  mind  chiefly 
employed  are  reason  and  memory. 

§  320.   CREATIVE    INVENTION. 

By  this  is  meant  the  finding  qf  .subject-matter  by  means  of 
the  inventive  powers  of  the  mind.  The  writer  does  not  gather 
his  material  from  external  sources,  but  supplies  it  from  within. 

In  narrative,  creative  invention  is  found  in  all  works  of  the 
imagination  where  the  things  described  have  been  produced 
by  the  author's  own  conception.  For  example,  Dante's  Divina 
Commedia  describes  a  vast  succession  of  scenes,  with  a  multi- 
tude of  characters,  all  of  which  have  been  created  by  the 
powerful  genius  of  the  author.  In  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  we 
are  introduced  to  supernatural  scenes  and  superhuman  char- 
acters, with  mould  and  temper  transcending  anything  that  has 
ever  existed  in  real  life.  Homer  intermingles  the  natural  with 
the  supernatural,  and  blends  his  own  creations  with  history  or 
legend.      Creative  invention   may   also  be  shown  where  real 


3o6  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

facts  and  the  characters  of  real  life  are  represented,  but  where 
the  particular  characters  are  actual  creations,  or  are  endowed 
with  a  life  and  individuality  of  their  own.  This  is  illustrated 
in  modern  novels. 

In  exposition,  creative  invention  may  be  seen  where  the 
writer  sets  forth  to  establish  theories,  to  reason  from  new  com- 
binations of  principles,  or  to  reach  new  conclusions.  Here 
facts  may,  and,  indeed,  must  form  the  foundation  ;  but  the 
creative  invention  of  the  writer  is  seen  in  his  power  of  com- 
bination, analysis,  synthesis,  and  generalization,  and  in  his 
ability  to  pass  from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  This  is  ex- 
emplified in  Burke's  speech  on  Conciliation  with  America,  or 
in  Erskine's  speech  on  Hardy. 

The  faculties  of  the  mind  employed  in  creative  invention  are 
chiefly  imagination  and  reason. 

§  321.  THE    REAL   AND   THE    IDEAL. 

The  chief  field  of  creative  invention  is  fiction,  which  has 
three  distinct  modes  of  presentation — poetry,  prose,  and  the 
drama.  Among  these  two  classes  are  to  be  noted — the  real 
and  the  ideal. 

The  Real. — Where  the  writer  represents  the  scenes  and 
delineates  the  characters  of  real  life. 

The  Ideal. — Where  the  writer  describes  characters  and  scenes 
that  are  elevated  beyond  real  life.  The  ideal  must  rise  from 
the  real.  The  writer  takes  striking  circumstances,  as  in  human 
life,  and  builds  up  an  ideal  world  therefrom. 

The  same  thing  may  be  observed  in  art.  A  portrait  repre- 
sents the  real,  and  may  be  compared  with  an  original  concep- 
tion of  the  artist — a  bust  of  Julius  Caesar  with  the  Apollo  Belve- 
dere. The  one  is  imitation,  the  other  creation ;  the  former  is 
fact,  the  latter  imagination. 

§  322.  POETIC    FICTION. 

The  ideal  enters  largely  into  poetic  fiction.  Realistic 
poetr}',  as  a  distinct  class,  is  quite  modern,  and  is  found  ex- 
emplified by  Cowper,  Crabbe,  and  Wordsworth.  Passages  of 
this  sort  may,  however,  be  found  in  all  poetry,  and  not  the  least 
in  Homer.  Dante  in  conception  is  intensely  ideal,  yet,  in 
execution,  is  intensely  real.     Like  Swedenborg,  he  combines 


Modes  of  Invention.  307 

the  most  amazing  grandeur  and  subtlety  of  design  with  micro- 
scropic  minuteness  of  detail. 

In  the  drama  the  real  is  chiefly  found  in  comedy,  and  the 
ideal  in  tragedy ;  the  nearest  approach  to  the  real  being  in 
such  historical  plays  as  those  of  Shakespeare  \  yet  this  is  only 
apparent,  for  the  poet  idealizes  all  his  characters,  and,  like  the 
portraits  of  Vandyke,  these  living  historical  personages  have 
the  stamp  of  the  artist  upon  them.  The  highest  examples  of 
the  ideal  in  dramatic  writing  are  the  Prometheus  Bound,  of 
w^fCschylus ;  Shakespeare's  Midsummer-Night's  Dream, Tempest, 
and  Hamlet;  Shelley's  Prometheus  Unbound;  and  Goethe's 
Faust. 

§  323.   PROSE    FICTION. 

The  modern  novel  comprises  both  the  real  and  the  ideal. 
Fielding,  Thackeray,  and  Dickens  aim  after  the  real,  but  in 
this  they  are  surpassed  by  Trollope  and  others,  who  go  so  far 
as  to  produce  what  has  been  called  "  photographic  fiction," 
from  their  attention  to  the  pettiest  facts  of  real  life,  and  their 
exact  reproduction  of  commonplace. 

The  ideal  has  many  followers,  the  chief  of  whom  are  Rich- 
ardson, Miss  Burney,  Sir  Walter  Scott,  Fouqu^,  George  Sand, 
and  Victor  Hugo, 

The  modern  novel  has  attained  to  the  largest  place  in  the 
literature  of  the  imagination,  being  to  us  what  epic  poetry  was 
to  the  ancient  Greeks  or  the  drama  to  the  Elizabethan  age. 
Its  sphere  is  of  the  broadest  possible  kind,  and  its  character 
illimitable,  ranging  all  the  way  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest. 

In  modern  prose  fiction  there  are  three  things  to  be  con- 
sidered : 

1.  The  plot. 
,2.  The  characters. 

;.  The  scenery. 

'i.  The  Plot. — This  will  be  considered  elsewhere  in  connec- 
tion with  the  subject  of  order  of  thought. 

2.  Character. — According  to  a  recent  writer  in  Blackwood's 
Magazine,  this  is  the  dominant  force  in  fiction,  and  influences 
not  only  the  plot,  but  also  the  scenery.  The  leading  characters 
should  always  receive  the  most  careful  attention,  and  stand  as 
studies  of  human  nature.  The  minor  ones  serve  chiefly  to  set 
off  the  greater.     Original  creations  cannot  be  expected  except 

O 


I 


3o8  Elemeftts  of  EJietoric, 

from  writers  of  the  highest  genius ;  yet  common  characters  may 
be  placed  in  novel  situations,  and  thereby  acquire  much  inter- 
est. Some  authors  love  to  delineate  a  leading  character  of 
ideal  perfection,  to  whom  is  opposed  another  of  commensurate 
baseness.  The  former  is  popularly  termed  the  "  hero "  or 
"  heroine,"  and  the  latter  the  "  villain."  Thackeray  professed 
to  disbelieve  in  "  heroes ;"  but  even  in  Vanity  Fair  he  intro- 
duces the  true  and  noble-hearted  though  somewhat  stupid 
Dobbin,  and  in  the  Newcomes  he  has  portrayed  one  of  the 
most  striking  and  best-beloved  characters  in  modern  fiction. 

3.  Scenery. — This  may  be  either  subjective  or  objective;  the 
former  referring  to  the  display  of  human  emotion,  as  in  the 
banquet  of  Macbeth  or  the  ghost-scene  of  Hamlet,  the  latter 
to  natural  objects.  In  the  one  case  the  description  is  gener- 
ally in  close  connection  with  the  progress  of  the  story — rising 
out  of  it  and  flowing  along  with  it ;  but  in  the  other  this  con- 
nection is  by  no  means  so  frequent.  And  yet  in  material 
scenes,  no  less  than  in  moral,  a  close  relation  to  the  subject 
should  be  maintained ;  and  all  that  which  may  be  called  the 
"scenery"  should  have  its  own  meaning,  which  should  assist 
the  action. 

§  324.  THE   TWO    KINDS   OF    INVENTION    INTERMINGLED. 

Although  for  the  sake  of  convenience  these  two  kinds  of 
invention  have  been  considered  separately,  yet  in  literature 
they  are  generally  intermingled ;  for  the  creative  sort  is  never 
found  separated  from  a  basis  of  real  occurrence,  except  per- 
haps in  such  rare  instances  as  Shelley's  Prometheus  Unbound, 
or  Mrs.  Browning's  Drama  of  Exile.  Thus  Homer  had  the 
Trojan  traditions;  the  Greek  dramatists  those  of  Troy  or 
Thebes.  Legends  which  form  the  substratum  of  epic  or  dra- 
matic poetry  are  called  epopoeia,  the  chief  of  which  are  in  an- 
cient times  the  Trojan  and  the  Theban  ;  in  modern  times  the 
Carlovingian  and  the  Arthurian.  The  Elizabethan  dramatists 
based  their  works  upon  legends,  tales,  and  history;  Chaucer 
upon  stories  which  were  current  in  his  day;  Spenser  upon  the 
Arthurian  epopoeia ;  Milton  upon  that  mythology  which  had 
grown  up  outside  of  the  Bible  ;  Scott  upon  national  tradition  ; 
and  the  Idylls  of  the  King  rose  from  the  same  source  as  the 
Faerie  Queene. 


The  Status. 


309 


§  325.   OF    THE  TWO    KINDS,  THE    CREATIVE    IS    THE    GREATER. 

Of  the  two  kinds  of  invention,  the  creative  is  the  greater. 

It  may,  indeed,  be  considered  as  the  highest  power  which  is 
possessed  by  the  human  mind.  This  creative  faculty  has  been 
regarded  in  all  ages  as  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the  greatest 
poets,  and  constitutes  the  chief  difference  between  them  and 
their  lesser  brethren.  Homer,  Dante,  Shakespeare,  and  Mil- 
ton are  the  supreme  lords  of  literature.  It  is  in  this  respect 
that  Virgil  is  inferior  to  Homer ;  '1  asso  to  Dante ;  Ben  Jonson 
to  Shakespeare;  Spenser  to  Milton.  For  this  reason  the  great- 
est works  of  creative  invention  are  regarded  as  superior  to  the 
greatest  works  of  accumulative  invention — Homer  to  Thucyd- 
ides;  Milton  to  Gibbon;  Dickens  and  Thackeray  to  Macaulay 
and  Froude  ;  Tennyson  to  Grote  ;  Longfellow  and  Bryant  to 
Prescott  and  Motley.  In  short,  the  very  best  history  does  not 
offer  so  broad  a  field  for  the  exercise  of  genius  as  the  very  best 
fiction.  In  history  the  materials  are  accumulated,  the  multi- 
tudinous details  are  acquired  by  study,  treasured  up  in  the 
memory,  and  then  narrated.  In  fiction  these  are  all  created; 
the  portrayals  of  characters,  their  passions,  words,  acts ;  the 
scenery  and  surroundings.  Sometimes  beings  full  of  life  are 
brought  before  us,  unlike  anything  in  common  experience, 
speaking  words  that  last  forever ;  and  the  speaker  and  the 
words  are  all  created  by  the  author's  own  mind. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  STATUS. 

§  326.    ARRANGEMENT   OF   SUBJECT-MATTER. 

Having  thus  far  treated  of  the  finding  of  subject-matter,  we 
have  now  to  consider  its  arrangement,  and  under  this  head 
the  following  topics  are  included : 

1.  Status.  4.  Argument. 

2.  Classification.  5.  Introduction. 

3.  Order  of  thought.  6.  Conclusion. 


3IO  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

§  327.  STATUS. 

The  first  requisite  in  the  arrangement  of  subject-matter  is 
that  the  writer  have  a  perfectly  clear  idea  of  the  purpose  before 
him.  He  must  make  up  his  mind  positively  as  to  the  exact 
end  at  which  he  shall  aim,  and  so  arrange  the  whole  of  the 
subject-matter  that  it  shall  tend  towards  the  establishment  of 
this  end.  This  is  called  the  status.  Other  names  are  com- 
monly employed,  such  as  "  ground,"  "  position,"  "  point  of 
view,"  "standpoint,"  "central  thought,"  "proposition."  The 
term  "status"  is  used  by  Quintilian  as  equivalent  to  the  Greek 
word  <n-afftc,  which  he  says  was  first  employed  by  Isocrates,  and 
afterwards  by  others  in  this  sense.  Although  there  is  good 
authority  for  the  use  of  any  other  of  the  words  above  men- 
tioned, yet,  for  the  sake  of  technical  accuracy  as  well  as 
comprehensiveness,  the  term  "  status "  seems  to  be  the  most 
suitable. 

The  status  may  be  defined  as  the  point  of  view  from  which 
a  writer  regards  his  subject. 

A  careful  distinction  must  be  made  between  the  "status," 
the  "question,"  and  the  "subject."  The  subject  is  the  thing 
itself  to  be  treated  of.  The  question  is  the  particular  way  in 
which  the  subject  is  presented  for  treatment.  The  status  means 
the  particular  view  which  may  be  taken  of  the  subject.  Thus, 
let  the  subject  be  "  war."  The  question  should  be  :  "  Is  war 
right  or  wrong  ?"  The  status :  "  War  is  right,"  or  "  War  is 
wrong." 

The  status  has  received  great  attention  from  rhetoricians, 
who  have  most  carefully  elaborated  it,  but  to  an  unprofitable 
extent.  Cicero  admitted  three  general  divisions  of  this  subject, 
each  of  which  has  subdivisions.  Quintilian  at  first  admitted 
four  general  divisions,  but  afterwards  three.  The  following 
may  be  laid  down  as  a  sufficiently  extensive  analysis  of  the 
status,  though  it  has  nothing  in  common  with  that  of  the  an- 
cient writers. 

§  328.  THE   STATUS   WHERE   THE   AIM    IS   TO    INSTRUCT. 

The  status  may  be  considered  in  a  threefold  way,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  ends  and  aims  of  composition. 

I.  W^here  the  aim  is  to  instruct.     The  best  examples  of  this 


The  Stattis.  311 

are  found  in  historical  and  scientific  writings.  It  appears 
generally  as  a  bias,  or  coloring  of  the  facts  mentioned.  Thus 
the  historian,  whether  Catholic  or  Protestant,  Whig  or  Tory, 
colors  his  facts  so  as  to  convey  his  own  bias.  This  is  seen 
in  the  works  of  Hume  and  Lingard,  Clarendon  and  Macaulay. 
Herodotus  has  for  his  central  thought  the  glory  of  the  Gre- 
cians; Livy,  the  glory  of  the  Romans;  Gibbon,  the  life  of 
mankind  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  same  thing  is  exhibited 
by  scientific  writers,  who,  in  treating  of  purely  material  things, 
so  color  the  facts  as  to  inculcate  opinions  with  reference  to 
the  totally  different  subject  of  religion. 

In  writings  of  this  sort  the  status  may  be  called  the  "  point 
of  view." 

§  329.  THE   STATUS   WHERE   THE   AIM    IS   TO   CONVINCE   OR 
PERSUADE. 

2.  Where  the  aim  is  to  convince  or  persuade.  Here  the 
status  i^  very  clear,  and  is  held  prominently  forward  as  the 
point  to  which  arguments  tend.  It  is  especially  manifest  in 
oratory. 

Thus  in  the  great  struggle  between  ^schines  and  Demos- 
thenes, the  status  of  each  was  the  direct  opposite  of  that  of  his 
opponent. 

The  subject  was  the  past  policy  of  Demosthenes. 

The  question  was:  Shall  Demosthenes  receive  the  honor  of 
a  crown  ? 

The  status  of  ^schines  was :  The  policy  of  Demosthenes 
has  been  ruinous. 

The  status  of  Demosthenes  was  :  That  his  policy  has  been 
the  only  one  worthy  of  Athens. 

In  the  following  speeches,  the  status  in  each  case  is  worthy 
of  notice : 

Burke  on  American  Taxation  : 

'*  That  the  tax  ought  to  be  repealed,  and  the  poliqr  of  taxation  aban- 
doned." 

Burke  on  Conciliation  with  America : 

.   "That  the  people  of  the  American  colonies  should  be  admitted  into  an-^ 
interest  in  the  constitution,  and  allowed  the  rights  of  Englishmen." 


3 1 2  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Grattan  on  moving  a  Declaration  of  Irish  Right : 

"That  Ireland  has  the  right  of  making  her  own  laws." 

Erskine  on  the  Rights  of  Jurors  : 

"  That  the  jury  is  supreme  in  deciding  the  guilt  or  innocence  of  the 
accused." 

Sir  James  Mackintosh  on  behalf  of  Jean  Peltier: 

"  That  the  freedom  of  the  press  should  not  be  restricted  out  of  regard  for 
foreign  rulers." 

In  many  cases  the  titles  of  speeches  suggest  the  status. 
Thus  one  of  Lord  Chatham's  speeches  is  entitled  "On  the  Right 
of  Taxing  America,"  and  the  status  is — that  there  is  no  such 
right.  Another  is  entitled  "On  the  Removal  of  the  Troops 
from  Boston,"  and  the  status  is — that  the  troops  ought  to  be 
removed.  Lord  Brougham  delivered  a  speech  on  parliamentary 
reform,  and  the  status  is — that  such  reform  is  necessary.  In 
Sheridan's  speech  against  Warren  Hastings,  the  title  and  the 
status  are  the  same. 

The  status  is  often  set  forth  as  the  main  proposition.  Thus, 
in  the  letter  of  Junius  to  the  printer  of  the  Public  Advertiser^ 
it  is  given  in  the  following  words : 

"111  usage  may  rouse  their  indignation  and  hurry  them  into  excesses,  but 
the  original  fault  is  in  the  government" 

In  Burke's  speech  on  Conciliation  with  America  it  is  given 
in  the  same  way  : 

"  The  proposition  is  peace.  ...  I  propose  by  removing  the  ground  of  the 
difference,  and  by  restoring  the  former  unsuspecting  confidence  of  the  col- 
onies in  the  mother  country,  to  give  permanent  satisfaction  to  your  people." 

In  pulpit  oratory  the  status  is  often  contained  in  the  text 
of  Scripture  which  precedes  the  sermon. 

Where  the  aim  is  to  convince  or  persuade,  the  status  is  the 
thing  to  be  established,  and  the  establishment  of  the  status  is 
called  proof. 

§  330.   LEADING   STAGES    OF    ORATORY. 

The  leading  stages  of  oratory  may  be  summed  up  and  illus- 
trated as  follows  : 


The  Status.  313 


Is  war  an  evil  or  not  ? 


The  subject  is  the  thing  to  be  discussed :  as,     War. 

The  question  is  the  enunciation  of  the  sub- 
ject : 

The  status  is  the  view  of  the  subject,  or  the 

thing  to  be  established  :  That  war  is  an  evil. 

The  proof  is  the  establishment  of  the  status  :     War  is  an  evil. 

The  refutation   is   the  establishment   of  the 

opposite  status :  •  War  is  a  good. 

The  disproof  is  the  overthrow  of  the  status  :     War  is  not  an  evil. 

Under  certain  circumstances  the  orator  is  at  liberty  to  de- 
cline proof,  and  throw  the  burden  of  it  upon  the  other  side. 
This  is  the  "  onus  probandi,"  or  "  burden  of  proof." 

1.  Where  existing  truths  or  institutions  are  assailed,  the 
onus  probandi  devolves  upon  the  assailant. 

2.  Where  the  rights  of  man  are  at  stake,  the  onus  probandi 
devolves  upon  those  who  may  be  shown  to  infringe  them. 

3.  The  onus  probandi  is  upon  those  who  seek  to  establish  a 
positive  principle,  and  not  upon  those  who  dissent. 

4.  In  general,  where  an  attack  is  made,  the  assailant  as- 
sumes the  onus  probandi,  and  the  defendant  contents  himself 
with  refutation. 

§  331.   THE   STATUS   WHERE   THE   AIM    IS   TO    PLEASE. 

3.  Where  the  aim  is  to  please. 

This  includes  a  large  portion  of  narrative  in  prose  and 
poetry,  as  well  as  dramatic  composition,  although,  as  has  been 
said  before,  the  more  important  part  of  fiction  has  also  an 
associated  aim  to  instruct  or  persuade.  The  following  is  a  list 
of  representative  works  of  fiction,  with  the  status  in  each  case : 

Homer's  Iliad  :  The  fame  of  heroes  in  the  Trojan 

war. 
"        Odyssey :  A  description  of  the  world  of  that 

age    through    the    wanderings    of 

Ulysses. 
Dante's  Divina  Commedia :  The  progress  of  the  soul  through 

scenes  of  sin  and  punishment  up  to 

the  rest  of  heaven. 
Bunyan's  Pilgrim's  Progress :  The  same. 

Don  Quixote :  This  is  more  than  a  satire,  for  its 

true  aim  is  the  portrayal  of  a  simple, 

high  -  minded,  chivalrous  man,  who 


314 


Elements  of  Rhetoric. 


The  Pickwick  Papers : 


creates  laughter  by  his  absurdities, 
but  wins  aflfection  by  the  pathos  of 
his  nature. 

The  same.  The  central  figure  here 
is  Pickwick,  who  creates  laughter, 
but  wins  affection.  He  is  the  Don 
Quixote  of  the  nineteenth  century. 


In  modern  novels  the  status  is  generally  love,  but  in  some 
of  them  it  is  different: 


Oliver   Twist,    Bleak    House,    and 

others  of  Dickens : 
Thackeray's  Vanity  Fair,  and  most 

of  his  novels  : 
The  Wandering  Jew : 
The  Count  of  Monte  Christo : 
Les  Miserables : 


The   religious    novels    of  the   age, 
which  are  very  numerous : 


The  Prometheus  of  itschylus  and 
The  (Edipus  of  Sophocles : 
Macbeth  : 

Hamlet  : 


Reform  of  public  abuses. 
Denunciation  of  shams. 

The  effort  to  win  a  vast  treasure. 

Revenge, 

The  development  of  a  human  char- 
acter from  the  lowest  vice  to  the 
highest  virtue. 

A  certain  religious  view  inculcated 
by  the  writer — High-Church,  Low- 
Church, Protestant,  Catholic,  or  Anti- 
christian. 

The  mystery  of  unmerited  suffer- 
ing. 

The  progress  of  an  upright  man 
to  sin  and  destruction. 

The  struggle  of  an  irresolute  and 
meditative  nature  with  a  situation 
that  requires  prompt  and  vigorous 
action. 


The  status  in  fiction  is  called  "  motif."  This  is  a  term 
which  has  been  derived  from  the  vocabulary  of  art,  where  it 
refers  to  the  purpose,  intent,  or  meaning  of  the  artist's  work. 
As  the  work  of  the  imaginative  writer  is  analogous  to  that  of 
the  artist,  the  term  "  motif"  will  serve  equally  well  for  each. 

From  the  foregoing  remarks  it  will  be  evident  that  the  status 
is  of  the  highest  importance,  and  stands  at  the  threshold  of  all 
writing.  From  this  the  writer  has  one  fixed  and  well-defined 
idea  of  the  work  before  him,  and  develops  his  plan  according- 
ly; nor  is  it  possible  for  any  work,  either  in  literature  or  in 
art,  to  be  well  done  unless  this  is  attained. 


Classification,  3 1 5 

§  332.   THE   TITLE. 

The  title  is  generally  a  condensation  of  the  whole  argument, 
to  which  it  bears  the  same  relation  that  the  argument  bears  to 
the  complete  work. 

Sometimes  it  expresses  the  subject,  as,  "  War ;"  "  The  His- 
tory of  England." 

Sometimes  it  expresses  the  question,  as, "Demosthenes  on  the 
Crown;"  />.,  whether  the  crown  shall  be  given  to  him  or  not. 

Sometimes  it  expresses  the  status,  as,  "  Sheridan  against 
Warren  Hastings." 

Sometimes  it  has  no  connection  either  with  subject,  ques- 
tion, or  status ;  as,  Dante's  Divina  Commedia,  which  indi- 
cates nothing  that  is  to  be  found  in  the  book,  the  author's 
purpose  being  to  fathom  the  mystery  of  life,  to  exhibit  the  con- 
sequences of  sin,  to  show  the  progress  of  a  soul,  guided  by 
earthly  and  celestial  wisdom,  through  all  these  scenes  of  sin 
and  suffering,  to  a  final  rest. 

In  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  the  title  but  suggests  the  subject, 
which  is  the  struggle  of  good  and  evil.  He  indicates  the  status 
in  the  opening  lines,  "  Of  man's  first  disobedience ;"  but  this 
is  insufficient,  since  the  true  motif  of  the  poem  is  the  display 
of  towering  pride  of  intellect  as  unfolded  in  the  central  figure — 
Satan — around  whom  all  the  action  revolves. 


CHAPTER  V. 

CLASSIFICATION. 
§  333.    CLASSIFICATION. 

After  the  subject-matter  has  been  collected,  either  by  ac- 
cumulation from  without  or  by  creation  from  within,  it  is  nec- 
essary, before  any  use  can  be  made  of  it,  to  arrange  all  in 
regular  divisions  according  to  the  character  that  may  belong 
to  each.  This  is  called  classification,  the  general  law  of  which 
is  to  determine  the  general  heads,  and  to  arrange  the  special 
under  them. 

Classification  may  be  considered  with  reference  to  the  sub- 
ject-matter, i.e.^  whether  narrative  or  expository. 

O2 


3i6  Elemeftts  of  Rhetoric. 


§  334.    CLASSIFICATION   WHERE   THE    SUBJECT-MATTER    IS    NAR- 
RATIVE. 

I.  Classification  where  the  subject-matter  is  narrative. 

In  whatever  way  narrative  may  be  set  forth,  the  subject-mat- 
ter must  be  classified.  There  are  always  great  characters,  great 
events,  or  leading  incidents,  which  serve  as  centres  around 
which  all  minor  movements  may  be  gathered.  Thus  in  prose 
narrative  the  divisions  are  always  plainly  marked.  An  example 
of  this  may  be  found  in  Gibbon's  History.  Here  there  are  nu- 
merous events,  which  are  narrated  in  the  following  divisions ; 

The  Decline  of  the  Western  Empire. 

The  Rise  of  Christianity. 

The  Northern  Races. 

The  Rise  of  Mohammedanism. 

The  Mongol  Conquests. 

The  Crusades. 

The  Turkish  Conquests. 

The  internal  history  of  Constantinople. 

Western  European  history. 

Fiction,  whether  in  prose  or  poetry,  must  exhibit  the  same 
principle  at  work.  The  Iliad  is  made  up  of  several  leading 
divisions,  which  consist  of  acts  in  connection  with  Achilles, 
Diomede,  and  Hector.  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  consists  of 
scenes  in  hell,  scenes  in  heaven,  and  scenes  on  earth.  Dante's 
Divina  Commedia  exhibits  remarkably  minute  classification. 
The  Inferno,  for  instance,  is  divided  into  cantos,  which  refer 
to  the  classes  of  sins  apportioned  to  successive  circles  in 
hell. 

In  the  drama,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  another  form  of 
narrative,  classification  is  indicated  by  acts  and  scenes,  and  in 
the  judicious  arrangement  of  these  the  dramatist  shows  his 
constructive  skill.  The  most  effective  thing  in  the  drama  is  a 
striking  scene,  with  an  important  incident,  to  which  the  previous 
action  leads  up,  and  from  which  others  are  deduced.  This  is 
called  a  "  situation."  The  same  thing  may  be  found  in  narra- 
tive, prose  or  poetry,  but  it  is  most  perceptible  and  effective  in 
the  drama. 

Thus  in  Macbeth  the  leading  situations  are  the  interviews 
with  the  witches,  upon  which  the  other  acts  depend. 


Classification.  3 1 7 

The  classification  of  Hamlet  is  as  follows : 
The  scenes  which  depend  upon  the  visitations  of  the  Ghost. 
"  "  "         "     the  Play  of  Gonzago. 

"     Ophelia. 
"  "  "         "     Hamlet's  wavering  purpose. 

"  "  "         "     the  King  and  Queen,  as  the 

evil-doers. 
The  classification  of  the  Merchant  of  Venice  is  peculiar. 
There  are  two  different  sets  of  incidents,  each  with  its  own 
action  and  its  own  situations.     These  are : 
I  St.  The  incidents  of  the  Three  Caskets. 
2d.     "  "         "  Shylock, 

§  335.    CLASSIFICATION    IN   DESCRIPTION. 

2.  Classification  in  description. 

There  are  two  modes  of  description. 

I  St.  Where  objects  are  described  in  detail,  as  the  description 
by  a  traveller  of  countries  through  which  he  has  passed.  This 
may  be  called  panoramic.  It  is  found  in  books  of  travel,  geo- 
graphical works,  histories  which  contain  descriptions  of  coun- 
tries, cities,  monuments,  galleries,  etc.  The  best  panoramic 
descriptions  are  characterized  by  great  vivacity.  Good  news- 
paper correspondence  often  assumes  this  form,  and  may  be 
seen  in  Russell's  Crimean  letters,  or  in  those  of  the  corre- 
spondent of  the  London  Daily  Ntws  during  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian War. 

2d.  Where  objects  are  described  as  surrounding  some  centre 
to  which  they  all  stand  in  subordination,  as  branches  to  a  tree, 
or  tributaries  to  a  river.     This  is  called  scenic  description. 

This  is  the  more  artistic  mode. 

Examples  are  to  be  found  in  the  novels  of  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
as  in  the  trial  of  Effie  Deans ;  and  in  Milton's  Paradise  Lost, 
where  he  describes  the  fallen  angels,  "  All  these  and  more 
came  flocking;"  "He  above  the  rest  .  .  .  stood  proudly  emi- 
nent;" or  the  description  of  Eden,  ending  with,  "Two  of  far 
nobler  shape." 

§  336.    GROUPING. 

Classification  is  seen  in  description,  in  the  effective  way  in 
which  the  writer  gathers  together  the  things  which  are  to  be 
named,  so  that  they' shall  be. assembled  arqund  some  common 


3 1 8  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

centre,  with  a  view  to  artistic  effect.     This  is  called  group- 
ing. 

An  admirable  example  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  Macaulay's 
essay  on  Warren  Hastings,  in  which  there  occurs  a  description 
of  his  trial.  From  this  the  two  following  passages  are  taken, 
the  first  referring  to  external  scenes,  the  second  to  internal : 

"  The  place  was  worthy  of  such  a  trial.  It  was  the  great  hall  of  William 
Rufus — the  hall  which  had  resounded  with  acclamations  at  the  inauguration 
of  thirty  kings  ;  the  hall  which  had  witnessed  the  just  sentence  of  Bacon  and 
the  just  absolution  of  Somers  ;  the  hall  where  the  eloquence  of  Strafford  ^d 
for  a  moment  awed  and  melted  a  victorious  party  inflamed  with  just  resent- 
ment ;  the  hall  where  Charles  had  confronted  the  High  Court  of  Justice  with 
the  placid  courage  which  has  half  redeemed  his  fame.  Neither  military  nor 
civil  pomp  was  wanting.  The  avenues  were  lined  with  grenadiers.  The 
streets  were  kept  clear  by  cavalry.  The  peers,  robed  in  gold  and  ermine, 
were  marshalled  by  the  heralds  under  Garter  King  at  Arms.  The  judges, 
in  their  vestments  of  state,  attended  to  give  advice  on  points  of  law.  Near 
a  hundred  and  seventy  lords,  three  fourths  of  the  Upper  House — as  the 
Upper  House  then  was — walked  in  solemn  order  from  their  usual  place  of 
assembling  to  the  tribunal.  The  junior  baron  led  the  way,  Lord  Heath- 
field,  recently  ennobled  for  his  memorable  defence  of  Gibraltar  against  the 
fleets  and  armies  of  France  and  Spain.  The  long  procession  was  closed  by 
the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  Earl  Marshal  of  the  realm  ;  by  the  great  dignitaries, 
and  by  the  brothers  and  sons  of  the  king.  Last  of  all  came  the  Prince  of 
Wales,  conspicuous  by  his  fine  person  and  noble  bearing." 

The  centre  of  this  scene  is  Westminster  Hall  as  contem- 
plated from  an  external  point  of  view.  Around  this  are  gather- 
ed two  distinct  sets  of  incidents.  The  first  consists  of  the  as- 
sociations of  the  past  as  illustrated  by  the  enumeration  of  the 
crowned  kings,  Bacon,  Somers,  Strafford,  and  King  Charles. 
The  second  brings  before  the  mind  a  splendid  throng  of  nobles, 
warriors,  and  statesmen. 

"  The  gray  old  walls  were  hung  with  scarlet.  The  long  galleries  were 
crowded  by  an  audience  such  as  has  rarely  excited  the  fears  or  the  emula- 
tion of  an  orator.  There  were  gathered  together  from  all  parts  of  a  great, 
free,  enlightened,  and  prosperous  realm  grace  and  female  loveliness,  wit 
and  learning,  the  representatives  of  every  science  and  of  every  art.  There 
were  seated  around  the  queen  the  fair-haired  young  daughters  of  the  house 
of  Brunswick.  There  the  ambassadors  of  great  kings  and  commonwealths 
gazed  with  admiration  on  a  spectacle  which  no  other  country  in  the  world 
could  present.  There  Siddons,  in  the  prime  of  her  majestic  beauty,  looked 
with  emotion  on  a  scene  surpassing  all  the  imitations  of  the  stage.  There 
the  historian  of  the  Roman  Empire  thought  of  the  days  when  Cicero  plead- 
ed the  cause  of  Sicily  against  Verres,  and  when,  before  a  senate  which  still 


Classification.  319 

retained  some  show  of  freedom,  Tacitus  thundered  against  the  oppressor  of 
Africa.  There  were  seen  side  by  side  the  greatest  painter  and  the  greatest 
scholar  of  the  age.  The  spectacle  had  allured  Reynolds  from  that  easel 
which  has  preserved  to  us  the  thoughtful  foreheads  of  so  many  writers  and 
statesmen,  and  the  sweet  smiles  of  so  many  noble  matrons.  It  had  induced 
Parr  to  suspend  his  labors  on  that  dark  and  profound  mine  from  which  he 
had  extracted  a  vast  treasure  of  erudition — a  treasure  too  often  buried  in  the 
earth,  too  often  paraded  with  injudicious  and  inelegant  ostentation,  but  still 
precious,  massive,  and  splendid.  There  appeared  the  voluptuous  charms 
of  her  to  whom  the  heir  of  the  throne  had  in  secret  plighted  his  faith. 
There,  too,  was  she,  the  beautiful  mother  of  a  beautiful  race,  the  Saint  Ce- 
cilia, whose  delicate  features  lighted  up  by  love  and  music,  art  has  rescued 
from  the  common  decay.  There  were  the  members  of  that  brilliant  society 
which  quoted,  criticised,  and  exchanged  repartees  under  the  rich  peacock 
hanging  of  Mrs.  Montague  ;  and  there  the  ladies  whose  lips,  more  persua- 
sive than  those  of  Fox  himself,  had  carried  the  Westminster  election  against 
palace  and  treasury,  shone  around  Georgiana,  duchess  of  Devonshire." 

We  are  now  transferred  to  the  interior.  The  author  de- 
scribes that  splendid  assemblage  in  a  characteristic  way ;  first 
by  stating  its  character  in  general  terms,  and  then  by  enumer- 
ating individuals  in  such  a  fashion  that  the  interest  increases 
continually,  while  all  the  time  the  centre  of  this  brilliant  throng 
is  the  subject  of  his  essay — the  accused  Warren  Hastings. 

§  337.    CLASSIFICATION    IN    EXPOSITION. 

3.  Classification  in  exposition. 

In  narrative  subject-matter,  classification  depends  upon  the 
taste  and  imagination.  In  expository  subject-matter  it  de- 
pends upon  the  reason.  It  is  necessary  to  see  what  really  are 
the  general  heads,  and  what  are  not.  These  general  heads 
must  be  chosen  with  discrimination,  and  the  subordinate  heads 
arranged  under  them. 

§  2>2>^'    ANALYSIS   AND   SYNTHESIS. 

Two  processes  are  observable  here — analysis  and  synthesis. 
Analysis  is  the  separation  of  the  subject-matter  into  its  subor- 
dinate parts;  synthesis  is  the  reconstruction  of  these,  by  which 
they  are  put  together  and  built  up  into  a  new  and  orderly  form. 

§   339.    GENERAL    AND    PARTICULAR   PROPOSITIONS. 

A  difficulty  sometimes  arises  in  cases  where  there  are  sub- 
ordinate notions  which  are  equally  assignable  to  any  one  of 


320  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

two  or  more  general  heads.  Thus  in  a  classification  of  the 
figures  of  speech,  parallel  may  be  assigned  to  antithesis  as  part 
of  that  figure  ;  or  it  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the  figures  of 
similarity;  or,  again,  it  may  be  associated  with  the  iterative  fig- 
ures. In  such  a  case  the  writer  must  be  guided  to  a  decision, 
first,  by  what  seems  most  fitting;  and,  secondly,  by  the  neces- 
sities of  the  general  order  of  thought,  which  is  an  important 
guide,  not  only  to  the  arrangement  of  arguments,  but  also  to 
the  classification  of  particulars. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  general  and  subordinate  divisions 
of  argument,  attention  must  be  paid  to  propositions,  which  are 
the  enunciations  of  things  to  be  proved,  or  of  things  contrib- 
uting to  proof. 

These  are  general  and  particular. 

The  most  important  of  the  former  is  called  the  main  propo- 
sition. This  is  often  identical  with  the  status,  though  in  most 
cases  the  two  are  different.  General  propositions  are  usually 
the  enunciations  of  the  general  heads  of  arguments.  Partic- 
ular propositions  are  the  enunciations  of  minor  statements. 
These  include  examples,  illustrations,  corollaries,  deductions, 
etc 

The  following  example  is  taken  from  Erskine's  speech  on 
the  Rights  of  Jurors: 

First  proposition  (general) : 

"  I  begin  by  saying  .  .  .  that  when  a  bill  of  indictment  is  found,  or  an  in- 
formation filed,  charging  any  crime  or  misdemeanor  known  to  the  law  of 
England,  and  the  party  accused  puts  himself  upon  the  country  by  pleading 
the  general  issue — not  guilty — the  jury  are  generally  charged  with  his  de- 
liverance from  the  crime  ;  and  not  specially  from  the  fact  or  facts,  in  the 
commission  of  which  the  indictment  or  information  charges  the  crime  to 
consist,  much  less  from  any  single  fact  to  the  exclusion  of  others  charged 
upon  the  same  record." 

Second  proposition  (general) : 

"  That  no  act  which  the  law  in  its  general  theory  holds  to  be  criminal 
constitutes  in  itself  a  crime,  abstracted  from  the  mischievous  intention  of 
the  actor  ;  and  that  the  intention  (even  when  it  becomes  a  simple  inference 
of  legal  reasons  from  the  fact  or  fects  established)  may  and  ought  to  be  col- 
lected by  the  jury  without  the  judge's  assistance." 

Upon  these  two  general  propositions  the  whole  argument  is 
based. 


Classification.  321 

The  following  are  short  examples  of  the  general  and  par- 
ticular divisions  in  classification  : 

Cicero's  second  oration  against  Catiline. 
Exordium. 

First  general  division  :  Cicero's  defence. 
Particular  divisions  : 

1.  Defence  against  the  charge  of  too  great  leniency  in 

allowing  Catiline  to  leave  the  city. 

2.  Defence  against  the  charge  of  too  great  severity  in 

driving  Catiline  into  exile. 
Second  general  division  :  The  forces  of  Catiline. 
Third  general  division  :  The  forces  of  the  republic. 
Peroration. 

Sermon  by  the  Rev.  F.  W.  Robertson  : 

Text:  "And  you  that  were  sometimes  alienated  and  enemies  in  your 
minds  by  wicked  works,  yet  now  hath  he  reconciled." 

Two  general  classes  are  suggested — those  who  are  alienated 
and  those  who  are  reconciled.  Under  these  the  subordinate 
divisions  are  gathered,  and  the  classification  assumes  the  fol- 
lowing form  : 

First  general  division  :  Alienation. 
Particular  divisions  : 

1.  God  from  man. 

2.  Man  from  God. 

Second  general  division  :  Reconciliation. 
Particular  divisions: 

1.  Man  to  God. 

2.  Man  to  man. 

3.  Man  to  himself 

4.  Man  to  his  duty. 

Burke  was  accustomed  to  pay  extraordinary  attention  to 
method,  and  nowhere  can  the  study  of  classification  be  more 
profitably  applied  than  to  some  of  his  great  speeches. 

The  following  extract  from  his  speech  on  the  East  India  Bill 
of  Fox  will  exhibit  his  manner  : 

"  My  second  condition  necessary  to  justify  me  in  touching  the  charter  is — 
Whether  the  Company's  abuse  of  their  trust  in  regard  to  this  great  object  be 
an  abuse  of  great  atrocity.     I  shall  beg  your  permission  to  consider  their 


322  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

conduct  in  two  lights  :  first,  the  political,  and  then  the  commercial.  Their 
political  conduct,  for  distinctness,  I  divide  again  into  two  heads — the  ex- 
ternal, in  which  I  mean  to  comprehend  their  conduct  in  their  federal  ca- 
pacity as  it  relates  to  powers  and  states  independent ;  the  other  internal, 
namely,  their  conduct  to  the  countries  either  immediately  subject  to  the 
Company,  or  to  those  who,  under  the  apparent  government  of  native  sover- 
eigns, are  in  a  state  much  lower  and  more  miserable  than  conunon  sub- 
jection. 

"The  attention,  sir,  which  I  wish  to  preserve  to  method,  will  not  be 
considered  as  unnecessary  or  aflFected  Nothing  else  can  help  me  to  se- 
lection out  of  the  infinite  mass  of  materials  which  have  passed  under  my 
eye,  or  can  keep  my  mind  steady  to  the  great  leading  points  I  have  in 
view." 

The  subject  of  classification  is  well  presented  in  the  follow- 
ing outline,  which  deserves  careful  study. 

OUTLINE  OF  BURKE'S  SPEECH  ON  CONCILIATION  WITH  AMERICA. 

Exordium. 

Preliminary  remarks. 

Announcement  of  status. 

Announcement  of  main  divisions. 
I.  Main  division  :  Whether  concessions  should  be  made. 

1.  General  division  : 

State  and  circumstances  of  the  American  colonies. 
Particular  divisions  : 

A.  Population. 

B.  Commerce. 

C.  Agriculture. 

D.  Fisheries. 

2.  General  division  : 

Force  ought  not  to  be  used  in  such  a  case. 
Particular  divisions : 

A.  Its  use  is  temporary. 

B.  Its  use  is  uncertain. 

C.  The  object  contended  for  is  impaired. 

D.  There  is  no  experience  in  favor  of  the  effect  of 

force  as  instrumental  in  the  rule  of  British 
colonies. 

3.  General  division  : 

The  temper  and  character  of  the  American  colonists. 


Classification.  323 

Particular  divisions : 

A.  Origin. 

B.  Government. 

C.  Religion. 

D.  Domestic  institutions. 

E.  Education. 

F.  Remoteness. 

4.  General  division  : 

Only  three  modes  are  possible  in  dealing  with  the  spirit 
of  the  colonies ;  the  first  mode  being  to  change  it  by 
removing  the  causes  of  their  firmness  and  intracta- 
bility. 
Particular  divisions : 

A.  By  stopping  land  grants. 

B.  By  impoverishing  them. 

C.  By  breaking  up  their  republican  institutions. 

D.  By  the  emancipation  of  their  slaves. 

E.  By  the  barrier  of  remoteness. 

5.  General  division  : 

The  second  mode — to  prosecute  this  spirit  as  criminal. 
Particular  divisions  : 

A.  The  difficulty  of  treating  states  like  individuals. 

B.  Difference  between  an  empire  and  a  kingdom. 

C.  A  perilous  thing  to  be  judge  in  one's  own  cause. 

6.  General  division  : 

The  third  mode— to  comply  with  the  American  spirit. 
Out  of  this  is  evolved  the  second  main  division. 
II.  Main  division.     What  the  concessions  should  be. 
I.  General  division  : 
Taxation. 

Particular  divisions : 

A.  The  speaker  declines  to  discuss  the  abstract  right. 

B.  Admission  of  Americans  to  the  rights  of  English- 

men. 

C.  Taxation  should  be  given  up. 

D.  Inconsistency  of  those  who  insist  upon  taxation. 

E.  The  public  and  avowed  origin  of  the  quarrel 

was  taxation. 

F.  Answer  to  the  objection  that  the  colonies  will 

make  greater  demands  if  this  is  conceded. 


324  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

G.  The  history  of  the  British  Constitution  a  safe 
guide. 
Special  divisions  : 

a.  Ireland. 

b.  Wales. 

c.  Chester. 

d.  Durham. 

2.  General  division : 

America  not  to  be  represented  in  Parliament,  but  to 
aid  the  mother  country  by  grants  from  provincial 
assemblies. 

3.  General  division  : 

Explanation  of  the  orator's  own  measures. 
Particular  divisions : 

A.  Purport  of  the  resolutions. 
Special  : 

a.  The  colonies  have  not  been  represented  in 

Parliament. 

b.  They  have  been  liable  to  taxation  without 

representation. 

c.  No  method  has  been  devised  for  procuring 

their  representation. 

d.  Each  of  the  colonies  has  a  Parliament  of  its 

own. 

e.  These  provincial  assemblies  have  frequently 

granted  aid  for  military  service,  and  their 
right  to  do  so  has  been  acknowledged  by 
Parliament. 
/  This  way  of  granting  supplies  has  been 
more  beneficial  than  the  direct  levy  of 
taxes  by  Parliament. 

B.  Establishment  of  a  fair  and  unbiassed  judicature. 

C.  Courts  of  Admiralty. 

D.  Objections  refuted. 

E.  Lord  North's  scheme  examined. 

F.  Comparison  between  Lord  North's  scheme  and 

the  present  one. 

G.  No  direct  revenue  can  be  expected  from  America. 
Peroration. 


The  Order  of  Thought,  325 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  ORDER  OF  THOUGHT. 

§  340.   THE   ORDER   OF   THOUGHT. 

After  the  classification  of  arguments,  the  most  important 
thing  is  their  disposition  in  an  effective  order.  Excellence  in 
the  one  is  usually  associated  with  excellence  in  the  other, 
though  by  no  means  always;  for  the  writer  who  is  good  at 
analysis  and  synthesis  may  not  understand  how  to  arrange 
his  divisions  so  as  to  give  them  their  utmost  force.  Of  the 
two,  an  effective  order  is  the  better.  The  orations  of  Fox  do 
not  exhibit  much  method,  nor  are  his  classifications  carefully 
or  accurately  made,  but  his  principal  propositions  are  always 
so  disposed  as  to  accomplish  the  greatest  result.  The  speeches 
of  the  Earl  of  Chatham  exhibit  even  less  attention  to  classifica- 
tion, but  the  general  order  of  thought  is  in  the  highest  degree 
effective.  Without  this,  even  the  best  classification  may  be  of 
little  value.  The  writer  has  been  likened  to  a  general  with 
well-drilled  troops  and  excellent  material,  which,  however,  lose 
all  their  force  unless  well  marshalled  as  a  whole,  and  properly 
set  in  battle  array. 

Failure  often  arises  from  want  of  care  in  this  respect.  Even 
after  the  subject-matter  has  been  accumulated  and  duly  classi- 
fied, there  may  be  an  utter  want  of  order  in  the  general  arrange- 
ment. 'One  paragraph  or  section  will  treat  of  one  thing;  the 
next  will  take  up  something  that  should  be  relegated  to  an- 
other part  of  the  work;  the  effect  of  one  argument  is  spoiled 
by  that  which  follows;  elegant  description  is  succeeded  by  dry 
statistics,  and  the  discussion  of  lofty  principles  by  tedious  com- 
hionplace ;  the  force  of  an  unanswerable  argument  is  frittered 
away  by  presenting  it  in  a  wrong  place,  or  by  diverting  the 
reader  from  this  to  a  crowd  of  feeble  ones.^  In  this  way  the 
attention  is  distracted,  the  interest  is  lost,  and  the  general 
effect  is  at  best  but  confused. 


326  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  order  of  thought  may  be  carried  out  in  several  different 
ways. 

§   341.   CHRONOLOGICAL    ORDER    OF    THOUGHT. 

1.  Chronological  order. 

By  this  is  meant  the  statement  of  circumstances  in  the  order 
of  their  occurrence. 

This  is  often  the  most  convenient,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
best.  For  example,  in  any  historical  work  the  writer  may  have 
occasion  to  enumerate  the  great  wars  of  the  past,  and  in  such 
a  case  it  is  generally  convenient  to  mention  them  in  the  order 
of  their  occurrence.  Again,  if  it  were  necessary  to  mention 
the  leading  philosophers,  the  following  would  be  but  a  con- 
fused array  of  names  :  Locke,  Abelard,  Hamilton,  Socrates, 
Cicero,  Plato,  Kant,  Aristotle.  It  is  but  natural  to  name  them 
in  chronological  order :  as,  Socrates,  Plato,  Aristotle,  Cicero, 
Abelard,  Locke,  Kant,  Hamilton.  The  same  thing  may  be 
carried  out  in  the  mention  of  events.  Thus,  in  speaking  of  the 
unification  of  Italy,  the  topics  would  be  arranged  as  follows: 
The  desire  for  union,  Piedmont,  Cavour,  the  French  alliance, 
the  Lombard  War,  Garibaldi  in  Sicily,  the  annexation  of  Naples, 
the  acquisition  of  Rome. 

§  342.   LOGICAL   ORDER   OF    THOUGHT. 

2.  Logical  order. 

The  logical  order  is  the  order  of  importance.  In  this  the 
divisions  are  so  arranged  that  they  increase  in  importance 
until  the  end.  It  is  largely  employed  both  in  narration  and 
exposition,  and  must  receive  special  consideration  with  refer- 
ence to  each  of  these. 

§  343.   IN    NARRATION. 

In  the  first  place,  we  have  to  consider  the  logical  order  of 
thought  in  narration. 

The  chronological  and  the  logical  order  are  both  used  ex- 
tensively in  history,  and  may  be  illustrated  in  "chronicles," 
"  annals,"  and  "  history  "  proper.  The  former— chronicles  and 
annals — give  a  narrative  of  events  in  the  order  of  their  occur- 
rence, one  by  one,  and  year  by  year.  History  gives  a  narra- 
tive of  events,  in  which  the  order  of  time  is  only  generally  fol- 
lowed, and  logical  sequence  is  principally  considered.     The 


The  Order  of  Thought.  327 

chronological  order  is  followed  by  Thucydides,  by  Tacitus  in 
his  Annals,  by  Josephus,  and  by  the  great  body  of  the  mediaeval 
chroniclers.  The  logical  order  is  adopted  by  Herodotus,  in 
ancient  times,  and  by  Gibbon  and  most  other  historians  in 
modern  times. 

The  chronological  order  can  only  be  used  where  the  history 
is  simple.  Thus  Thucydides  had  for  his  subject  one  of  the 
utmost  unity,  namely,  the  struggle  between  Athens  and  Sparta; 
in  which,  notwithstanding  the  immensity  of  the  stake,  the  mul- 
titude of  characters  introduced,  and  the  vast  extent  of  such  a 
war  by  land  and  sea,  there  was  nevertheless  nothing  to  divert 
the  mind  from  the  two  leading  powers,  or  to  prevent  the  narra- 
tive from  being  detailed  as  it  went  on  from  year  to  year.  When 
history  becomes  complicated,  however,  another  plan  must  be 
adopted.  The  work  of  Herodotus,  the  first  great  monumental 
history,  traverses  the  known  world  of  his  day;  it  deals  with  all 
the  great  nations;  their  history,  their  legends,  their  civilization, 
their  geography.  In  such  a  case  it  is  necessary  to  leave  one 
subject  and  take  up  another,  going  back  in  order  to  do  so,  and 
breaking  in  wherever  necessary  upon  the  order  of  time. 

§  344.   CONCURRENT  STREAMS. 

In  history  generally  the  logical  order  is  carried  out  by  treat- 
ing events  by  means  of  what  are  called  concurrent  streams. 

Thus  in  Gibbon's  history  the  writer  has  to  deal  with  the 
course  of  human  action  for  a  thousand  years;  and  different 
movements  have  to  be  narrated  in  such  a  way  that  the  mind 
of  the  reader  may  be  able  to  grasp  several  sets  of  events  which 
were  simultaneous  in  time.  These  simultaneous  movements 
or  sets  of  events  are  called  concurrent  streams,  and  the  narra- 
tion of  these  requires  that  the  author  describe  one  until  he 
shall  find  a  convenient  stopping- place,  after  which  he  can 
make  a  retrogression  to  take  up  the  others  one  by  one. 

The  same  thing  is  necessary  in  writing  the  history  of  Greece. 
The  concurrent  streams  here  are  the  histories  of  Athens,  Spar- 
ta, Thebes,  Persia,  the  Greek  colonies,  etc. 

In  writing  the  history  of  a  great  country,  it  is  necessary  not 
only  to  handle  concurrent  streams,  but  to  find  suitable  resting- 
places,  at  which  one  may  make  a  retrogression  for  the  sake 
of  bringing  them  all  up  to  one  point.     For  this  purpose  it  is 


328  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

necessary  to  divide  it  into  periods,  and  such  periods  may  be 
decided  by  the  author.  Thus  in  the  history  of  England  there 
is  the  Roman  period,  the  Anglo-Saxon  period,  after  which  fol- 
lows the  Norman  period,  etc.  Now  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  period 
the  concurrent  streams  are  :  The  settlement  of  the  Anglo-Sax- 
ons, their  institutions,  the  states  of  the  Heptarchy,  their  con- 
version to  Christianity,  literature,  the  Danes,  etc. 

Sometimes  the  concurrent  streams  are  too  numerous ;  some- 
limes  they  are  too  divergent.  This  is  the  case  with  the  history 
of  the  world,  which  cannot  be  satisfactorily  written  so  as  to  be 
anything  of  the  nature  of  literature,  or  better  than  a  school 
manual.  This  is  true  also  of  the  history  of  Italy,  where  the 
following  must  be  taken  up  and  narrated  : 

1.  Rome — ancient,    mediaeval,    modern,    papal,    municipal, 

political,  artistic. 

2.  Naples,  ancient  and  modern. 

3.  Sicily. 

4.  Tuscany — Florence,  Pisa,  etc. 

5.  Genoa. 

6.  Lombardy — Milan,  Verona,  etc 

7.  Venice. 

To  these  may  be  added  Ravenna,  Bologna,  Ferrara,  and 
others,  each  of  which  might  well  require  an  entire  history  to 
itself  For  this  reason  no  satisfactory  "history  of  Italy"  can 
possibly  be  written. 

In  addition  to  this,  there  are  also  various  departments  in  the 
history  of  a  nation  which  must  be  considered — as,  politics; 
literature ;  learning ;  religion  ;  science  ;  the  useful  arts  and 
inventions  ;  institutions,  and  the  progress  of  constitutional  his- 
tory generally.  Modern  historians  having  discarded  the  "  drum 
and  trumpet  style,"  and  feeling  it  incumbent  upon  them  to  dis- 
cuss the  general  life  and  progress  of  a  nation,  thus  find  their 
task  growing  every  day  more  complicated  and  difficult.  In 
order  to  carry  on  such  a  work  as  this  various  subsidiary  modes 
are  employed,  such  as  the  following : 

§  345.  RETROGRESSION. 

Retrogression  consists  in  leaving  one  subject  to  go  back  in 
the  order  of  time  and  take  up  another.  Thus  Gibbon,  after 
narrating  the  rise  of  Mohammedanism,  returns  to  the  history 
of  the  Eastern  Empire  and  Constantinople. 


The  Order  of  Thought.  329 

§  346.   EXPLANATORY   NARRATIVE. 

Explanatory  narrative  is  introduced  in  order  to  make  the 
subject  in  hand  more  intelligible  to  the  reader.  It  is  often 
the  history  of  another  country,  or  the  same  country  in  another 
period.  Thus,  to  explain  the  interference  of  England  in  Con- 
tinental affairs  during  the  time  of  Napoleon,  a  brief  survey  of 
the  history  of  France  and  the  Revolution  is  necessary.  To 
explain  the  history  of  England  during  the  American  War  of  the 
Revolution,  it  is  necessary  to  give  an  account  of  the  American 
colonies. 

§  347.  SUMMARY. 

Summary  is  often  identical  with  the  foregoing.  It  is  some- 
times used  at  the  commencement  of  a  history,  in  order  to 
give  a  general  account  of  the  country  treated  of.  This  is  ad- 
mirably done  by  Macaulay  and  Froude.  It  is  also  extensively 
used  at  the  close  of  any  period,  when  the  writer  finds  a  halting- 
place  where  he  can  pause  for  the  sake  of  presenting  valuable 
conclusions  before  setting  forth  on  another  part  of  the  work. 

§   348.   LOGICAL   ORDER   OF   THOUGHT   IN    EXPOSITION. 

Having  thus  briefly  considered  the  logical  order  of  thought 
in  narration,  we  have  now  to  observe  its  use  in  exposition. 

The  nature  of  the  logical  order  is  that  the  ideas  be  arranged 
according  to  their  importance;  but  in  exposition  there  is  a  va- 
riation in  this  order  according  to  the  importance  which  the 
writer  himself  may  attach  to  the  different  ideas,  or  the  mode 
of  their  presentation. 

Various  modes  of  presentation  may  be  observed,  especially 
in  proof  and  in  refutation. 

§  "k^   IN    PROOF. 

In  proof  there  are  two  chief  modes. 

I.  The  ideas  are  sometimes  arranged  in  an  ascending  series, 
and  go  on  increasing  in  strength  until  the  end.  The  first  argu- 
ment is  the  weakest,  and  from  this  they  grow  successively  more 
forcible  until  the  last,  which  is  the  greatest  of  all. 

An  example  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  following  from  the 
letter  of  Junius  to  the  printer  of  the  Public  Advertiser: 

"  I.  The  finances  of  a  nation  sinking  under  its  debts  and  expenses  are 


330  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

committed  to  a  young  nobleman  (the  Duke  of  Grafton,  First  Lord  of  the 
Treasury),  already  ruined  by  play. 

"  2.  A  series  of  inconsistent  measures  have  alienated  the  colonies  from 
their  duty  as  subjects,  and  from  their  natural  affection  to  their  common 
country  (the  American  Revolution), 

"  3.  Drawing  lots  would  be  a  prudent  and  reasonable  method  of  appoint- 
ing the  officers  of  state,  compared  with  a  late  disposition  of  the  secretary's 
office  (changes  in  the  Cabinet), 

"4,  The  Commander-in-chief  (Marquis  of  Granby)  and  his  corruption. 

"  5.  The  Navy, 

"6.  The  Judiciary." 

After  which  comes  the  following  summing  up  : 

"This,  sir,  is  the  detail.  In  one  view  behold  a  nation  overwhelmed 
with  debt ;  her  revenues  wasted  her  trade  declining  ;  the  affections  of  her 
colonies  alienated  ;  the  duty  of  the  magistrate  transferred  to  the  soldiery ;  a 
gallant  army,  which  never  fought  unwillingly  but  against  their  fellow-sub- 
jects, mouldering  away  for  want  of  the  direction  of  a  man  of  common  abilities 
and  spirit ;  and,  in  the  last  instance,  the  administration  of  justice  become 
odious  and  suspected  to  the  whole  body  of  the  people.  This  deplorable 
scene  admits  but  of  one  addition,  that  we  are  governed  by  councils  from 
which  a  reasonable  man  can  expect  no  remedy  but  poison,  no  relief  but 
death." 

2.  Where  the  strongest  argument  is  still  reserved  till  the 
last,  but  the  first  one  presented  is  of  great  weight  and  force, 
and  the  weaker  ones  are  introduced  in  the  middle.  Here  the 
forcible  opening  argument  is  adapted  to  arrest  the  attention 
and  impress  the  mind  of  the  reader  or  hearer  at  the  outset, 
and  then,  after  the  weaker  ones  have  followed,  the  strongest 
of  all  concludes. 

An  example  of  this  is  found  in  Sheridan's  speech  against 
Warren  Hastings,  in  which  his  greatest  argument  is  the  hor- 
rors committed  in  Oude.  This  is  brought  forward  at  the  out- 
set in  a  most  impressive  manner  by  the  reading  of  a  letter 
from  Lord  Cornwallis,  Governor  of  India,  upon  which  he  makes 
striking  comments.  Then  follows  the  discussion  of  the  evi- 
dence, after  which  he  returns  to  the  great  point  of  the  horrors 
of  Oude,  making  of  this  his  most  forcible  argument,  and  urging 
it  with  the  most  vehement  oratory. 

§  350.   IN   REFUTATION. 

In  refutation  an  opposite  mode  is  often  adopted  —  where 
the  strongest  argument  of  the  opponent  is  grappled  with  at 


The  Order  of  Thought.  331 

the  outset,  after  which  the  weaker  ones  are  disposed  of  with 
the  greater  ease,  and  the  general  result  is  more  forcible.  Quin- 
tilian  recommends  this,  urging  the  refutation  of  the  strongest 
firsts  "  lest  if  this  is  in  the  mind  of  the  hearers,  they  may  think 
it  unanswerable  until  it  is  answered."  When  minor  points  are 
first  dealt  with,  it  should  be  in  cases  where  they  stand  in  the 
way  that  leads  to  the  consideration  of  the  stronger  arguments, 
and  this  should  be  distinctly  stated. 

An  example  of  this  may  be  found  in  Burke's  speech  on 
Fox's  East  India  Bill.  The  objections  to  the  bill  are  an- 
swered in  order,  and  the  strongest  one  is  answered  first,  as 
follows  : 

ist  objection  :  That  the  bill  is  an  attack  on  chartered  rights. 

2d  "  That  it  increases  the  influence  of  the  Crown. 

3d  "  That  it  does  not  increase  but  diminishes  the 

influence  of  the  Crown,  in  order  to  promote 
the  interests  of  certain  ministers. 

4th         "  That  it  deeply  affects  the  national  credit. 

The  first  objection  is  considered  by  the  speaker  as  the 
strongest.  It  is  accordingly  grappled  with  at  the  outset,  and 
the  arguments  brought  forward  in  answer  to  it  comprise  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  speech. 

§  351.    EXAMPLES. 

No  better  field  for  an  enlarged  study  of  this  subject  can  be 
found  than  the  speeches  which  arose  out  of  the  memorable 
contest  between  vEschines  and  Demosthenes.  An  analysis 
of  each  oration  is  given  below. 

The  occasion  of  this  contest  was  the  proposal  by  Ctesiphon 
to  bestow  an  honorary  crown  on  Demosthenes  for  his  public 
services,  upon  which  ^schines  prosecuted  Ctesiphon  on  the 
ground  of  the  illegality  of  the  measure,  and  Demosthenes  came 
forward  to  defend  himself. 


THE   ORATION   OF  ^ESCHINES   AGAINST   CTESIPHON. 

Exordium. 

The  prevalence  of  factious  proceedings  had  led  to  illegal 
measures,  which  should  be  stopped. 
I.  The  proceedings  of  Ctesiphon  were  illegal. 

P 


333  'Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

1.  Because  the  law  forbade  a  magistrate  to  be  crowned 

before    the    accounts    of   his    office    had    been    ac- 
cepted. 

2.  The   fact  that  Demosthenes   had    expended  his  own 

money  in  the  public  service  did  not  clear  him  from 
responsibility. 

3.  Demosthenes  held  two  offices  at  the  time  that  Ctesiphon 

proposed  to  crown  him. 

4.  In  addition  to  this,  Ctesiphon  had  proposed  the  coro- 

nation in  an  illegal  place. 

II.  Demosthenes  did  not  deserve  this  honor. 

1.  On  account  of  his  private  character. 

2.  On  account  of  his  public  character,  which  ^schines 

severely  criticises. 

A.  Demosthenes  acted  against  the  interests  of  his  coun- 

try in  making  peace  with  Philip  in  the  first  period 
of  his  career,  and  in  exhibiting  a  servile  spirit  to- 
wards him. 

B.  After  Philip  had  passed  Thermopylae,  Demosthenes 

suddenly  changed  his  policy,  blamed  his  fellow- 
ambassadors  for  the  peace,  instigated  war  against 
Philip,  made  disadvantageous  alliances,  and  was 
guilty  of  the  grossest  corruption. 

C.  He  then  brought  disgrace  on  himself  and  ruin  on 

his  country  by  upholding  the  Amphissians  in  their 
sacrilege,  and  by  the  alliance  with  Thebes. 

D.  After  the  battle  of  Chaeronea  Demosthenes  fled  from 

Athens,  and  upon  his  return  took  no  part  in  public 
affairs  until  the  death  of  Philip,  when  he  suddenly 
assumed  courage,  procured  the  passage  of  decrees 
honoring  Philip's  murderer,  ridiculed  Alexander  at 
a  distance,  but  quailed  when  he  was  near,  and, 
finally,  sold  himself  to  him. 

E.  Demosthenes  was  not  a  friend  to  true  liberty. 

III.  There  was  a  necessity  of  greater  strictness  in  conferring 
public  honors,  and  in  confining  speakers  to  their  subject. 

IV.  He  compared  himself  with  Demosthenes. 

V.  Reiterated  the  illegality  of  the  decree,  and  the  unworthi- 
ness  of  Demosthenes. 

VI.  And  warned  the  judges  to  be  on  their  guard  against  the 


The  Order  of  ThougJiT.  333 

eloquence  of  Demosthenes,  or  the  influence  of  personal 
friendship  for  him. 
Peroratijon. 

THE    ORATION    OF    DEMOSTHENES    ON    THE   CROWN. 

Exordium. 

1.  Appeal  to  the  gods. 

2.  Claim  of  right  to  his  own  order  of  thought.      (For 

^schines  had  been  anxious  that  the  judges  should 
confine  Demosthenes  to  the  same  order  of  thought 
which  he  himself  had  used,  or  otherwise  restrict 
him,  and  Demosthenes  protested  against  this  at  the 
outset.) 

3.  He  had  a  greater  stake  in  this  trial. 

I.  Refutation  of  charges  foreign  to  the  indictment. 

1.  He  would  not  refute  the  charges  against  his  private  life, 

but  he  would  leave  the  judges  to  decide  from  their 
knowledge  of  him. 

2.  As  to  the  charges  against  his  public  life,  they  were  ob- 

viously dictated  by  malice,  and  were  therefore  false, 
as  could  be  shown  in  one  instance,  viz.,  the  peace 
with  Philip.  For  this  peace  had  been  proposed,  not 
by  himself,  but  by  yEschines,  who  with  his  friends  had 
been  bribed  by  Philip,  after  which  Philip  gained  other 
traitors  like  ^schines  everywhere. 

II.  Refutation  of  charges  in  the  indictment. 

I.  A  review  of  his  public  life  and  measures. 

A.  Philip  had  been  taking  advantage  of  the  corrupt  and 

divided  state  of  Greece  to  gain  dominion  over  her. 

B.  Athens  could  not,  consistently  with  her  honor,  take 

any  other  course  than  resistance. 

C.  Philip  had   violated  the  peace  by   seizing  certain 

allied  cities  of  Athens. 

D.  And  by  seizing  certain  vessels  of  Athens. 

E.  Philip  had  acquitted  him  of  any  blame  in  a  letter  to 

the  Athenians. 

F.  His  first  measures  of  hostility  to  Philip  had  been  in 

resisting  his  unjust  encroachments. 

G.  The  succor  sent  to  Byzantium  and  the  Perinthians 

had  been  of  the  same  nature. 


334  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

H.  It  was  no  objection  to  the  policy  of  assistance  that 
these  states  had  formerly  been  hostile. 

I.  In  addition  to  this,  he  had  introduced  valuable  re- 
forms into  the  navy. 
2.  The  legality  of  the  proposal  of  Ctesiphon  to  crown  him. 

A.  He  was  not  responsible  for  his  accounts. 

B.  This  had  been  acknowledged  by  ^^schines. 

C.  The  place  named  was  in  accordance  with  the  law. 
III.  Strictures  upon  the  character  and  policy  of  ^schines 

as  compared  with  his  own. 

1.  The  character  and  course  of  ^schines  : 

A.  His  low  origin  and  early  life  in  low  pursuits. 

B.  His  late  appearance  in  public  life. 

C.  Numerous  proofs  of  his  treasonable  connection  with 

Philip. 

D.  He  continued  to  act  in  the  interest  of  Philip  after 

the  designs  of  the  latter  were  known,  especially  in 
the  Amphictyonic  War. 
R  ^schines  had  assisted  Philip,  and  was  therefore  the 
guilty  cause  of  all  the  evils  which  had  befallen  his 
country. 

2.  His  own  policy. 

A.  The  Theban  alliance,  to  which  ^schines  had  not 

objected  at  the  time  when  it  was  his  duty  to  do  so. 

B.  Athens  could  not  have  taken  any  other  course  con- 

sistent with  honor. 

C.  Further  remarks  on  the  Theban  alliance,  and  events 

immediately  subsequent. 

D.  Through  all  these  measures  he  had  enjoyed  the  con- 

fidence of  the  people. 

3.  Further  comparison  between  himself  and  ^schines. 

4.  His  answer  to  the  warning  of  ^schines  as  to  his  ora- 

tory. 

5.  Final  reasons  for  being  crowned. 

A.  Because  he  had  never  taken  bribes. 

B.  Because  of  his  policy. 

C  Because  of  his  patriotism. 
Peroration. 

Another  example  well  worthy  of  study  may  be  found  in  the 


The  Order  of  Thought.  335 

speeches  which  arose  out  of  the  contest  between  Pitt  and  Fox 
on  the  subject  of  Napoleon's  overtures  for  peace. 

THE  ORATION  OF  PITT  ON  THE  REFUSAL  TO  NEGOTIATE  WITH 
BONAPARTE. 

The  following  is  a  full  analysis  of  the  speech  of  Pitt  on  the 
refusal  to  negotiate  with  Bonaparte : 
Status. 
That  the  war  had  arisen  through  the  perfidy  of  France, 
and  should  not  be  ended  unless  there  were  adequate 
securities  for  peace. 
Exordium. 

It  is  impossible  to  separate  the  present  discussion  from 
the  former  crimes  and  atrocities  of  the  French  revolution. 
Introduction  leading  up  to  the  discussion. 
Those  in  favor  of  negotiation  must  hold  one  of  three  opin- 
ions : 

1.  That  the  French  revolutionary  system  does  not  in- 

volve any  insecurity  in  negotiation ;  or, 

2.  That  the  recent  changes  have  given  that  security 

which  was  formerly  wanting;  or, 

3.  That  this  insecurity  exists,  but  that  even  under 

these   circumstances   peace  is  better  than  the 
continuation  of  war. 
Discussion. 
I.  Origin  of  the  war. 

1.  The  dismissal  of  M.  Chauvelin  was  not  the  cause  of  the 

war. 

2.  Nor  is  that  cause  to  be  found  in  the  refusal  to  negotiate 

with  the  revolutionary  government. 

3.  The  true  cause  is  to  be  found  in  the  aggressions  of 

France  in  the  annexation  of  Belgium  and  Savoy, 
and  the  declaration  of  war  against  all  the  thrones  of 
Europe. 

4.  The  explanations  offered  by  France  were  inadmissible, 

and  the  effect  of  admitting  them  would  have  been  to 
encourage  revolution  everywhere. 

5.  These  aggressions  were  followed  by  the  more  violent 

decree  of  December  15,  1792,  which  amounted  to  a 
declaration  of  war  against  all  civilized  governments. 


33^  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

6.  This  was  designed  to  apply  to  all  nations,  and  to  Eng- 

land particularly. 

7.  Their  armies  were  prepared,  and  their  generals  were 

instructed  to  carry  out  a  system  of  universal  aggres- 
sion. 

8.  It  was  after  these  events  that  M.  Chauvelin  was  required 

to  depart. 

9.  An  insinuation  is  contained  in  the  note  from  France 

that  England  had,  previous  to  the  above  transactions, 
supported  the  combinations  of  other  powers  against 
that  country. 

10.  The  proofs  which  contradict  this  are  innumerable. 

11.  A  large  number  of  facts  go  to  show  the  hostility  of 

France  towards  England. 

12.  England  had  no  connection  with  Austria  and  Prussia 

in  their  first  attack  on  France. 

13.  In  a  despatch  to  Russia  and  Prussia,  the  ground  taken 

by  England  indicated  moderation,  forbearance,  and 
sincerity. 
\\.  The  French  revolutionary  system  has  resulted  in  a  series 

of  unexampled  atrocities. 

Before  the  war  with  England  the  French  seized  Avignon 
and  other  places,  and  declared  war  against  Austria, 
Prussia,  and  the  Empire.  For  this  they  seek  to  justify 
themselves  on  the  ground  of  a  league  of  sovereigns  for 
the  dismemberment  of  France  at  the  treaty  of  Pilnitz. 
But  this  treaty  referred  only  to  the  deliverance  of  Louis 
XVI.,  and  might  have  been  amicably  explained  had 
not  the  policy  of  the  violent  party  in  France  made  war 
inevitable. 

After  the  war  with  England,  other  aggressions  followed — 
against  Spain,  Holland,  Portugal,  Naples,  and  the  Italian 
states,  culminating  in  the  extinction  of  Venice. 

The  acceptance  of  Venice  by  Austria  may  have  been  crim- 
inal on  the  part  of  that  power,  but  it  does  not  afford  an 
argument  to  lessen  the  crime  of  France  as  the  aggressor. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  French,  being  assailed  on  all 
sides,  made  these  conquests  in  self-defence.  On  the 
contrary,  according  to  the  French  note,  France,  when 
attacked,  considered  herself  justified  in  attacking  in  her 


The  Order  of  Thought,  337 

turn  those  with  whom  she  was  at  peace,  and  from  whom 
she  had  received  no  provocation,  and  in  finding  means 
of  increasing  her  strength  no  matter  where. 

In  1796,  when  the  Italian  invasion  was  beginning,  England 
proposed  a  general  peace  on  fair  conditions,  but  the 
proposition  was  rejected  by  France. 

The  causes  which  terminated  these  negotiations  were  the 
excessive  demands  of  France. 

In  the  following  year,  after  the  other  powers  had  made 
peace,  England  made  another  offer,  which  was  proudly 
refused. 

After  this  the  aggressions  of  France  went  on  as  before — 
against  Switzerland,  America,  Malta,  Egypt,  the  domin- 
ions of  the  Sultan ;  the  only  plea  for  this  last  invasion 
being  that  it  was  the  road  to  attack  the  British  power 
in  India. 

III.  The  nature  of  the  French  revolutionary  system. 

It  is  animated  by  the  most  abhorrent  principles — an  insa- 
tiable love  of  aggrandizement  and  an  implacable  spirit 
of  destruction,  which  principles  it  carries  out  by  the 
most  abominable  means,  from  Brissot  and  Robespierre 
to  Bonaparte.  It  is  animated  by  a  passion  for  indis- 
criminate plunder  at  home  and  abroad;  accompanied 
by  an  unwearied  spirit  of  proselytism,  and  characterized 
by  a  perfidy  which  no  treaties  can  bind.  Thus  quali- 
fied and  armed  for  destruction,  the  French  Revolution 
marches  forth  the  terror  and  dismay  of  the  world. 

IV.  One  striking  characteristic  of  the  French  Revolution  is 
the  instability  of  its  governments.  Successive  adminis- 
trations have  appeared  with  incredible  rapidity.  Under 
such  a  system,  with  incessant  changes,  no  security  has 
hitherto  existed,  and  none  is  now  offered.  According 
to  the  speech  of  one  of  the  Council  of  the  Five  Hundred, 
"the  French  government  must  be  considered  as  exhibit- 
ing nothing  fixed,  either  in  men  or  in  things." 

V.  The  French  revolutionary  system  under  Bonaparte. 
France  is  now  under  a  military  despotism,  with  its  power 

in  the  hands  of  one  man — Bonaparte — whose  personal 
character  is  an  important  subject  for  consideration. 
He  has  already  shown  hostility  to  England. 


338  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

He  has  violated  his  oaths  to  preceding  governments. 

He  swore  fidelity  to  the  constitution  of  the  Directory,  then 
overthrew  it,  and  finally  destroyed  the  Directory  it- 
self. 

Bonaparte  is  distinguished  for  perfidy  and  cruelty  more 
than  any  other  man — e. g.^\x\  Lombardy,  Modena,  Tus- 
cany, Genoa,  Rome,  Venice,  Egypt. 

He  has  now  an  interest  in  negotiating,  but  none  in  mak- 
ing peace. 

If  peace  were  made,  he  would  be  sure  to  break  it  when- 
ever he  could  take  us  at  a  disadvantage. 

In  addition  to  this,  his  power  is  of  uncertain  duration,  for 
it  is  a  military  despotism,  which  is  the  most  unstable  of 
all  forms  of  government. 

It  is  therefore  necessary  to  wait  for  experience  and  the 
evidence  of  facts  before  we  are  convinced  that  a  treaty 
is  admissible;  and  no  definite  period  can  be  assigned 
for  the  continuance  of  the  war. 

VI.  That  the  war  ought  to  go  on. 

The  object  of  the  war  is  not  to  force  the  Bourbons  on 
France,  but  to  weaken  the  military  despotism,  so  that 
the  French  people  may  be  freed  from  bondage,  and 
give  expression  to  their  own  desires  as  to  government. 

The  changes  of  property  in  France  may  prove  a  difficulty 
to  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  but  not  an  insuper- 
able one. 

The  low  state  of  public  credit  is  a  further  element  of  weak- 
ness to  the  revolutionary  system. 

The  restoration  of  the  Bourbons  is  desirable  for  France, 
and  also  for  the  rest  of  Europe. 

VII.  That  peace  is  dangerous. 

If  peace  is  made,  and  the  confederacy  of  Europe  dissolved, 
the  revolutionary  power,  in  the  hands  of  one  like  Bona- 
parte, will  continue  its  aggressive  and  perfidious  career. 
Peace  now  is  unreliable,  dangerous,  and  impossible. 

The  speaker  makes  a  frank  statement  to  this  effect :  The 
negotiations  of  1796-97  were  begun,  not  in  the  hope 
of  peace,  but  in  order  to  satisfy  the  country  by  the 
strongest  proofs  that  peace  was  unattainable,  and  thus 
gain  the  concurrence  of  the  nation  in  the  strong  and 


The  Order  of  Thought.  339 

vigorous  measures  which  were  necessary  in  order  to 

carry  on  the  war. 
Peroration. 

The  resources  of  England. 
Recent  victories. 

The  valor  and  efficiency  of  the  allies. 
The  exhaustion  of  France. 

The  following  is  an  analysis  of  the  speech  of  Fox. 

THE    ORATION    OF     FOX     ON    THE     REJECTION     OF     NAPOLEON'S 
OVERTURES. 

Status. 
That  peace  is  the  natural  state  of  human  society,  and 
ought  therefore  to  be  made,  unless  there  is  evidence 
that  the  securities  for  its  existence  are  inadequate. 

Exordium. 

1.  After  seven  years'  conflict  we  are  come  to  but  a  new  era 

of  the  war,  in  which  all  the  old  arguments  are  brought 
forward  to  induce  us  to  persevere,  and  conduct  it 
upon  principles  which  may  make  it  eternal. 

2.  In  the  rejection  of  the  overtures  for  peace  the  ministers 

have  made  use  of  harsh  and  insulting  language,  which 
should  never  be  used  in  treating  with  a  hostile  na- 
tion. 

3.  The  examination  into  the  early  history  of  the  war  with 

such  severe  and  minute  investigation  is  injurious  and 
ineffective. 
I.  The  French  are  not  the  originators  of  the  war. 
Austria  and  Prussia  were  virtually  the  aggressors. 
The  declaration  at  Pilnitz  was  a  menace  and  an  insult  to 

France. 
The  decree  of  the  19th  of  November  was  explained  by  the 
French  government ;  and  as  England  made  no  objection 
to  that  explanation,  this  country  had  now  no  right  to 
consider  it  as  an  act  of  aggression. 
The  plan  to  unite  with  Russia  in  joint  mediation  was  not 

carried  out. 
England  was  the  aggressor  in  dismissing  M.  Chauvelin. 
The  aggressions  of  Austria  and  Prussia  referred  not  only 
P  2 


340  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

to  the  external  measures  of  France,  but  to  her  internal 
affairs. 

II.  No  sincere  efforts  were  made  for  peace. 

However  bad  the  rulers  of  the  French  revolutionary  sys- 
tem may  have  been,  they  are  no  worse  than  their  pred- 
ecessors, for  their  measures  have  been  carried  out  upon 
Bourbon  principles  and  after  the  Bourbon  manner.  Yet, 
as  we  never  scrupled  to  treat  with  the  Bourbons  on  ac- 
count of  their  rapacity,  so  we  ought  not  to  refuse  to 
treat  with  their  republican  imitators. 

The  seizure  of  Savoy  met  with  no  remonstrance  at  the 
time,  and  should  not  now  be  put  forward  as  ground  for 
the  war. 

England  was  requested  to  mediate  between  France  and 
Austria  and  Prussia,  but  refused,  though  the  opportunity 
was  presented  for  preventing  the  calamities  of  war  with 
which  Europe  was  threatened. 

III.  Recrimination  useless.  Though  the  acts  of  the  French 
may  be  unjustifiable,  recrimination  would  only  serve 
to  prolong  the  war  perpetually.  The  French  can  also 
complain  of  us,  and  with  equal  reason,  in  the  following 
matters : 

1.  That  our  allies  were  the  partitioners  of  Poland. 

2.  England  invited  Switzerland  to  abandon  her  neutrality. 

3.  Tuscany  and  Genoa  were  coerced  into  hostility  against 

France. 

4.  In  the  case  of  Venice,  the  conduct  of  Austria  is  as  bad 

as  that  of  France. 

IV.  The  hostility  of  Europe  to  France  was  not  caused  by 

French  atrocities  alone,  but  by  the  policy  and  manage- 
ment of  the  British  and  their  allies.  Of  these,  the  Em- 
peror Paul  of  Russia  is  especially  guilty. 

V.  The  enormities  that  France  has  committed  cannot  be 

urged  as  an  argument  against  peace,  for  negotiations 
have  already  been  made  (in  1796  and  1797).  The 
statements  made  as  to  the  failures  of  these  negotiations 
are  inconsistent.  Peace  should  not  be  made  condition- 
al upon  the  restoration  of  the  house  of  Bourbon,  since 
the  French  should  be  left  to  the  management  of  their 
own  internal  affairs. 


The  Order  of  Thought.  341 

The  case  of  William  III.,  who  was  supported  by  his  Par- 
liament in  his  struggle  with  Louis  XIV.,  is  not  a  paral- 
lel one  or  a  model  for  imitation. 

The  publication  of  the  intercepted  French  correspondence 
has  been  defended  by  Mr.  Canning,  but  the  offensive 
ribaldry  with  which  that  publication  is  accompanied  is 
deserving  of  the  utmost  reprobation. 

VI.  Former  negotiations.  Mr.  Pitt's  negotiations  in  1797 
were  characterized  by  insincerity,  for  he  was  neither 
honest  to  this  House  nor  to  the  people  of  this  country. 
He  ought  now  to  treat  upon  the  same  principle  upon 
which  he  treated  in  1797. 

VII.  The  conditions  of  peace. 

1.  The  overthrow  of  Bonaparte  and  the  restoration  of  the 

Bourbons  are  made  by  the  ministry  a  sine  qua  nan. 
Yet  they  put  forward  other  cases,  in  the  event  of 
which  peace  may  be  made.     These  are  as  follows  : 

A.  If  Bonaparte  shall  conduct  himself  satisfactorily. 

B.  If  France  shall  acquiesce  in  his  government. 

C.  If  the  allies  shall  be  unsuccessful. 

D.  If  the  war  shall  be  oppressive  beyond  our  power  to 

bear. 
He  appeals  to  the  House,  if  the  question  had  been  an 
address  to  thank  his  Majesty  for  opening  negotiations 
for  peace,  would  they  not  all  have  voted  ? 

2.  Answer  to  the  charges  against  Bonaparte. 

The  military  despotism  of  Bonaparte  has  its  counter- 
part in  Ireland. 

Bonaparte's  violation  of  oaths  to  successive  governments. 

This  must  always  take  place  in  a  revolutionary  state 
of  society. 

Bonaparte  said  that  the  French  and  English  govern- 
ments could  not  exist  together.  Mr.  Pitt  has  fre- 
quently said  the  same  thing.  This  temper  is  diabol- 
ical, and  would  protract  the  war  indefinitely. 

Bonaparte  is  charged  with  desiring  war,  but  there  is 
good  reason  to  suppose  that  he  desires  peace. 

3.  The  return  of  the  Bourbons. 

The  changes  of  property  in  France  form  an  insurmount- 
able barrier  to  this;  and  this  difficulty  has  been  in- 
creased by  the  manifesto  of  Louis  XVIII. 


342  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

VIII.  The  atrocities  perpetrated  by  the  French  have  been 
equalled,  particularly  in  Naples,  and  by  the  British. 

Peroration. 

An  eloquent  portrayal  of  the  horrors  of  war,  and  the 
absence  of  purpose  which  marks  them  on  the  present 
occasion. 

THE   SPEECHES   OF    HAYNE   AND   WEBSTER. 

The  following  is  a  general  outline  of  the  order  of  thought  in 
the  speeches  of  Hayne  and  Webster.  In  1829  a  debate  arose 
on  public  lands,  upon  which  many  days  were  spent,  and  in 
which  most  members  participated.  The  chief  interest  was  felt 
in  the  speeches  of  two  leading  debaters — Robert  Hayne  and 
Daniel  Webster.  Two  speeches  were  delivered  by  each,  the 
final  speech  of  each  having  become  famous. 

Outline  of  the  speech  of  Hayne  : 

1.  Webster  has  changed  the  subject  of  debate,  and  has 

made  false  charges  against  the  South. 

2.  His  present  doctrine  is  inconsistent  with  his  former 

one,  and  inconsistent  with  his  former  acts  and  meas- 
ures. 

3.  The  friendliness  of  the  North  with  the  West  is  a  result 

of  a  corrupt  political  bargain. 

4.  The  South  has  been  unjustly  traduced. 

5.  South  Carolina  has  shown  great  devotion  to  the  Union, 

while  Massachusetts  has  plotted  against  it. 

6.  These  doctrines  now  proclaimed  by  him  (Hayne)  were 

advocated  by  the  founders  of  the  Union. 

Outline  of  the  speech  of  Webster  : 

1.  He  asserts  that  the  main  subject  has  been  neglected  by 

his  opponent. 

2.  Repels  personalities. 

3.  Vindicates  the  North  from  the  charges  made  against  it. 

4.  Repels  and  disproves  the  charge  of  a  corrupt  political 

bargain. 

5.  Denies  any  unfairness  towards  the  South. 

6.  Advocates  his  policy  towards  new  states. 

7.  Peroration. 

Plea  for  the  permanency  of  the  Union. 


The  Order  of  Thought.  343 

§  352.  DRAMATIC  ORDER  OF  THOUGHT. 

3.  The  third  kind  of  order  of  thought  is  called  the  dramatic, 
because  this  is  the  order  usually  followed  in  dramatic  compo- 
sition. It  is  sometimes  imitated  in  narrative  fiction.  The 
peculiarity  of  this  is  that  the  whole  disposition  of  the  events  is 
made  for  the  sake  of  dramatic  effect.  The  order  of  thought  or 
circumstances  depends  neither  upon  time  nor  upon  the  degree 
of  importance,  but  is  chosen  for  the  sake  of  stimulating  the 
curiosity  and  arousing  the  feelings. 

In  the  drama  the  opening  must  be  startling;  it  must  take 
the  spectator  into  the  midst  of  the  action,  and  be  sufficient 
to  rouse  his  interest  to  the  utmost.  Thus  in  the  Agamemnon 
of  ^schylus  this  is  effected  by  the  signal-fires ;  in  the  Prome- 
theus, by  the  nailing  of  the  victim  to  the  rock;  in  Macbeth,  by 
the  witches ;  in  Hamlet,  by  the  ghost. 

In  dramatic  literature,  any  incident  of  an  important  charac- 
ter upon  which  others  depend  is  called  a  crisis. 

The  leading  incident  which  terminates  a  play  is  called  the 
catastrophe. 

Successive  crises  terminated  by  the  catastrophe  correspond 
with  the  successive  divisions  in  other  branches  of  composition, 
terminated  by  that  which  is  of  the  chief  importance. 

After  the  first  crisis  others  may  follow,  and  these  are  to  be 
arranged  in  such  a  way  as  to  keep  the  interest  to  the  utmost 
height.  Thus,  in  Hamlet,  the  crisis  of  the  first  appearance  of 
the  ghost  is  followed  by  other  crises — such  as  other  appear- 
ances of  the  ghost ;  Ophelia  ;  the  play  of  Gonzago  ;  the  death 
of  Polonius;  the  madness  of  Ophelia;  the  churchyard  scene. 

These  must  be  arranged  in  such  a  way  as  to  lead  up  to  the 
catastrophe.  Here,  as  in  the  logical  order,  the  most  important 
thing  is  preserved  until  the  last;  as  in  Hamlet,  where  the  ca- 
tastrophe involves  the  death  of  the  chief  characters. 

It  is  therefore  a  law  in  dramatic  arrangement  that  the  inter- 
est be  maintained  till  the  end.  This  is  accomplished  in  vari- 
ous ways: 

By  suspense  —  as  in  Hamlet,  where  the  injured  seeks  ven- 
geance; or,  as  in  Romeo,  where  lovers  seek  one  another;  or, 
as  in  Othello,  where  an  evil-doer  seeks  his  victim;  or,  as  in 
Macbeth,  where  an  evil-doer  follows  a  course  of  crime  until  its 
final  retribution. 


344  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

By  the  working  out  of  destiny.  This  is  the  chief  device 
made  use  of  in  the  Greek  drama,  and  is  most  strikingly  man- 
ifest in  those  plays  founded  upon  the  epopceia  of  CEdipus. 

By  the  use  of  a  secret  or  a  mystery.  This  is  a  favorite 
device  of  the  modern  novelist,  who  is  thus  able  to  keep  his 
reader  in  a  constant  state  of  interest  arising  from  curiosity. 

§  353.    SCENIC    ORDER    OF    THOUGHT. 

4.  The  fourth  kind  of  order  of  thought  is  called  scenic.  This 
arises  where  the  order  is  of  such  a  nature  that  isolated  scenes 
or  detached  thoughts  have  the  •  utmost  effect  It  is  used 
chiefly,  if  not  exclusively,  in  narrative.  The  only  case  where 
it  is  used  in  exposition  is  in  certain  sermons  and  speeches  of 
the  popular  kind,  where  the  arguments  are  intermingled  with 
abundant  anecdote,  and,  though  filled  with  disconnected  as- 
sertions, are  yet  made  striking  and  effective  by  means  of  illus- 
trations and  examples.  "Revival"  preaching  and  "temper- 
ance "  oratory  will  often  exhibit  this. 

This  form  of  order  of  thought  is  largely  used  in  narrative, 
and  especially  by  writers  of  prose  fiction. 

Novelists  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes  with  re- 
gard to  order  of  thought. 

1.  Those  who  follow  the  logical  order.  These  writers  lay 
chief  stress  upon  the  plot.  Characters  are  of  inferior  impor- 
tance ;  incidents  are  everything;  and  these  incidents  are  so 
arranged  as  to  excite  the  reader  to  the  utmost.  His  attention 
is  roused  at  the  outset  by  some  startling  occurrence,  and  then 
consequences  are  deduced  from  this  in  such  a  way  that  his 
interest  is  incessantly  stimulated  until  the  close  is  reached. 
Here  it  is  the  series  of  events  succeeding  one  another  in  log- 
ical order  by  which  the  reader  is  attracted.  This  is  signally 
illustrated  in  the  "Arabian  Nights*  Entertainments;"  by  many 
French  novelists,  especially  Alexander  Dumas  and  Eugene  Sue ; 
and  by  writers  of  so-called  "sensation  novels." 

2.  The  second  class  is  made  up  of  those  who  attach  slight 
importance  to  the  plot,  but  regard  their  characters  as  of  su- 
preme importance.  Upon  these  all  the  interest  of  the  story  is 
made  to  depend — their  lifelike  portrayal,  their  acts,  their  words, 
their  thoughts.  Dickens  and  Thackeray  belong  to  this  second 
class.     They  were  both  greater  in  the  delineation  of  character 


The  Order  of  Thought,  345 

than  in  the  construction  of  plot.  The  Pickwick  Papers  has 
scarcely  any  plot  at  all,  but  owes  its  unity  to  the  characters. 
In  Vanity  Fair  the  plot  is  more  visible,  but  the  characters  have 
an  interest  in  themselves  quite  independent  of  their  fortunes. 
Balzac  may  also  be  mentioned  as  another  conspicuous  ex- 
ample of  this  class. 

Some  writers  unite  both.  Sir  Walter  Scott  gives  an  elabo- 
rate plot,  and  his  characters  are  all  portrayed  with  lifelike 
fidelity.  Victor  Hugo  rivals  Dumas  in  his  love  of  exciting  in- 
cident, yet  his  characters  are  strongly  marked;  and  Jean  Val- 
jean  is  one  of  the  greatest  creations  of  modern  genius.  George 
Eliot  (Mrs.  Lewes)  and  George  Sand  (Madame  Dudevant)  are 
writers  as  wide  as  the  poles  asunder,  yet  they  have  this  in  com- 
mon, that  they  can  construct  a  plot  of  intense  interest,  and 
create  characters  that  live  in  the  memory  of  the  world. 

Thus  in  the  modern  novel  where  the  Io,2;ical  order  is  adopt- 
ed, the  story  is  connected  by  the  framework  of  the  plot ;  but 
where  the  scenic  order  is  used,  the  story  is  connected  by  the 
characters. 

§  354.    ORDER     OF     THOUGHT     IN     DRAMATIC     AND     NARRATIVE 

WRITING. 

Dramatic  and  narrative  writing  require  respectively  a  differ- 
ent order  of  thought. 

The  narrative,  whether  of  the  scenic  or  logical  order,  has 
this  in  common,  that  it  is  always  the  telling  of  a  story.  The 
characters  are  regularly  introduced,  and  the  reader  is  made 
acquainted  with  them.  The  opening  is  explanatory,  and  the 
narrative  leads  to  some  crisis. 

In  dramatic  writing  the  characters  are  presented  abruptly  in 
the  midst  of  some  crisis. 

In  narrative  the  crisis  is  brought  forward  gradually,  after 
due  preparation  and  explanation. 

In  dramatic  writing  the  crisis  comes  on  at  once,  with  all  the 
characters  in  full  action,  leaving  the  spectator  to  gather  from 
their  words  and  deeds  who  and  what  they  are. 

In  narrative  the  writer  tells  all  about  his  characters. 

In  the  drama  the  writer  leaves  his  characters  to  tell  all 
about  themselves. 

The  drama  opens  the  situation  at  once,  and  explanation  fol- 


34^  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

lows  after.     The  narrative  follows  the  course  of  events,  but  in 
both  cases  the  catastrophe  is  reserved  till  the  last. 

Illustrations  of  the  dramatic  opening  may  be  found  in  Rich- 
ard the  Third,  Julius  Caesar,  and  Hamlet. 

There  are  exceptions  to  this. 

Sometimes  in  the  drama  there  is  a  preliminary  narrative. 
This  is  frequent  in  the  plays  of  Euripides.  The  narrative  is, 
however,  but  brief,  and  the  moment  it  is  ended  the  action  be- 
gins with  dramatic  abruptness. 

Sometimes  the  drama  follows  the  narrative  order,  as  in  some 
of  Shakespeare's  historical  plays. 

'  Sometimes  narrative  follows  the  dramatic  order.  This,  how- 
ever, is  a  mere  device  or  artifice  of  the  writer,  and  the  reader 
always  feels  that  it  "  reads  like  a  play." 

Examples  of  the  difference  between  narrative  and  dramatic 
writing  in  this  respect  may  be  seen  by  comparing  any  of 
Shakespeare's  plays  with  one  of  the  same  plays  turned  into 
narrative,  as  in  the  "Tales  from  Shakespeare."  It  may  also 
be  seen  by  witnessing  the  dramatic  representation  of  some 
popular  novel.  The  characters  remain  but  in  part;  many  are 
left  out;  those  which  remain  are  modified  strangely;  and  the 
order  of  thought  is  totally  changed.  This  change  is  so  great 
that  it  seems  like  another  work  altogether. 

§  355-  GENERAL  RULE  FOR  THE  ORDER  OF  THOUGHT. 

Finally,  in  all  kinds  of  composition  there  is  one  rule  for  the 
order  of  thought,  which  is  almost  invariable.  This  is,  that  the 
most  important  thing  must  be  reserved  until  the  last. 

Thus,  in  prose,  poetic  fiction,  and  the  drama,  the  catas- 
trophe must  be  in  the  last  place,  and  all  the  rest  must  lead 
up  to  it. 

In  exposition  the  strongest  argument  must  be  kept  till  the 
last,  and  all  the  other  arguments  must  lead  up  to  it. 


Arguments,  347 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ARGUMENTS. 

§  356.   ARGUMENTS. 

The  term  argument  is  susceptible  of  various  applications. 
Sometimes  it  means  merely  the  arrangement  of  subject-matter 
— as  the  argument  of  a  poem.  At  other  times  it  is  used  as 
synonymous  with  method.  It  is  employed  here  in  its  stricter 
signification,  and  means  the  use  of  one  or  more  facts  or  state- 
ments as  evidence  of  some  other  fact  or  statement. 

§  357.   DIFFERENCE    BETWEEN    RHETORIC   AND    LOGIC   WITH 
REGARD   TO  ARGUMENT. 

There  is  a  difference  to  be  observed  between  rhetoric  and 
logic  with  regard  to  arguments. 

The  province  of  rhetoric  is  the  finding  of  suitable  arguments 
and  the  proper  arrangement  of  them  to  prove  a  given  point. 
The  province  of  logic,  on  the  other  hand,  is  not  to  invent,  but 
to  judge  of  such  arguments.  Thus  rhetoric  has  reference  to 
the  formation  of  the  "plot"  of  a  novel,  the  "outline"  of  an 
essay,  the  "skeleton"  of  a  sermon,  or  the  "argument"  of  an 
oration.  Logic,  on  the  other  hand,  has  reference  to  the  critical 
examination  of  these.  Rhetoric  is  thus  concerned  with  com- 
position.    Logic  with  criticism. 

§  358.   LOGIC   DEFINED. 

Logic  is  defined  as  the  science  as  well  as  the  art  of  reason- 
ing, and  comprehends,  first,  the  analysis  of  the  mental  process 
which  takes  place  whenever  we  reason ;  and,  secondly,  the 
rules  grounded  on  that  analysis  for  conducting  the  process 
correctly. 

§  359.   REASONING. 

Before  entering  upon  the  consideration  of  arguments,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  devote  a  few  remarks  to  the  subject  of  reason- 
ing in  general. 


348  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Reasoning  comprises  various  constituent  elements,  tiie  chief 
of  which  are:  i.  Terms;  2.  Propositions;  3.  Definitions;  4. 
Proof. 

§  360.   TERMS. 

1.  Terms.  The  operation  of  reasoning  is  generally  per- 
formed by  means  of  words,  and  a  thorough  insight  into  the 
meaning  and  purposes  of  these  is  essential.  All  words  may 
be  divided  into  four  classes:  first,  names  descriptive  of  things 
or  acts;  secondly,  words  qualifying  names;  thirdly,  words  as- 
serting acts  or  qualities ;  fourthly,  words  qualifying  assertions. 

§  361.   PROPOSITIONS. 

2.  Propositions.  A  proposition  is  usually  defined  as  a  por- 
tion of  discourse  in  which  a  predicate  is  affirmed  or  denied 
of  a  subject.  In  rhetorical  arguments  the  word  has  a  wider 
meaning,  and  comprehends  all  statements  or  affirmations  which 
are  supported  or  enforced  by  proofs  or  arguments.  These,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  are  general  and  particular;  the  former 
referring  to  the  leading  heads  of  classification,  and  the  latter 
to  the  subordinate.  It  is  very  important  that  these  should  be 
put  forth  in  a  clear  and  unmistakable  manner.  The  main 
proposition  should  receive  special  attention,  and  stand  forth 
with  the  utmost  prominence.  An  example  of  this  may  be  found 
in  Sir  James  Mackintosh's  speech  on  Jean  Peltier,  where  the 
main  proposition  is  that  a  writer  in  England  should  not  be 
punished  in  order  to  avert  the  resentment  of  the  government 
of  France.  So  also  in  the  letter  of  Junius  already  quoted,  the 
chief  proposition  is  put  forth  so  clearly  that  it  leaves  the  strong- 
est possible  impression  on  the  mind.  "The  multitude  in  all 
countries,"  he  says,  "  are  patient  to  a  certain  point.  ^  III  usage 
may  rouse  their  indignation  and  hurry  them  into  excesses,  but 
the  original  fault  is  in  the  government."  These  last  words 
contain  the  main  proposition,  which  is  never  lost  sight  of 

Counter  proposition.  A  common  way  of  establishing  a  given 
principle  is  by  answering  and  refuting  its  opposite ;  as  when, 
in  advocating  free  trade,  a  writer  assails  protection,  or  vice 
versa.     This  is  merely  the  proposition  in  another  form. 

§  362.   DEFINITIONS. 

3.  Definitions.     A  definition  is  the  statement  of  the  meaning 


Arguments.  349 

of  a  word.  This  is  one  of  the  chief  requisites  to  clearness  of 
reasoning,  and  from  its  neglect  great  misapprehension  will  not 
unfrequently  arise.  Important  controversies  have  not  seldom 
been  carried  on  by  those  who  do  not  really  differ  very  greatly 
in  opinion,  but  who  are  misled  by  their  respective  interpreta- 
tions of  a  given  term. 

There  are  various  modes  of  definition. 

I  St.  The  formal  definition  in  set  terms,  such  as  those  that 
are  found  in  dictionaries  and  scientific  works. 

2d.  Definition  by  contrast,  as  when  heat  is  defined  as  the 
absence  of  cold,  or  darkness  as  the  absence  of  light,  or  sin  as 
the  absence  of  holiness. 

3d.  Definition  by  example  or  illustration.  The  drawing  of  a 
triangle,  the  picture  of  an  eagle  or  a  giraffe,  are  the  simplest 
and  clearest  ways  of  conveying  an  idea  of  the  things  in  ques- 
tion. For  this  reason  modern  dictionaries  often  supplement 
their  formal  definitions  with  illustrations.  But  examples  and 
illustrations  have  a  much  wider  application.  By  an  example 
is  meant  a  particular  instance,  as  when  the  case  of  the  rise  and 
fall  of  mercury  in  the  thermometer  is  adduced  to  explain  the 
statement,  "  heat  expands  bodies."  By  illustration  is  meant  an 
associated  fact — a  similar  or  analogous  case.  These  are  often 
made  by  means  of  figurative  language. 

A  good  example  of  the  definition  in  oratory  is  to  be  found 
in  Burke's  speech  on  the  East  India  Bill  of  Fox.  In  the  open- 
ing of  his  argument  he  considers  the  objection  that  the  bill 
is  an  attack  on  the  "chartered  rights  of  men,"  and  before 
answering  it  he  introduces  an  explanation  of  the  phrase. 

§  363.   PROOF. 

4.  Proof. 

Proof  is  based  upon  two  principles — deduction  and  induc- 
tion. 

§  364.  DEDUCTION. 

ist.  Deduction. 

By  deduction  is  meant  a  proof  arising  from  the  application 
of  some  general  law,  as  when  the  proposition,  "We  shall  all 
die,"  is  proved  from  the  general  law,  "  All  men  are  mortal." 
Deduction  is  thus  the  particular  application  of  a  more  general 
proposition  already  established,  and  it  always  implies  the  thing 
to  be  proved. 


350  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

§  365.  INDUCTION. 

2d.  Induction- 
Induction  is  a  process  of  inference  by  which,  from  the  ob- 
servation of  particulars,  we  prove  other  particulars  hitherto 
unknown  or  unadmitted  ;  or  show  that  what  is  true  of  certain 
individuals  of  a  class  is  true  of  a  whole  class.  Thus  from  the 
fact  that  the  Earth,  Venus,  Mercury,  and  Mars  revolve  around 
the  sun  in  an  elliptical  orbit,  we  may  infer  that  all  the  planets 
of  the  solar  system  revolve  in  the  same  way. 

It  has  been  shown  by  John  Stuart  Mill,  in  his  treatise  on 
Logic,  that  there  are  four  modes  of  induction  by  which  facts 
are  brought  to  bear  upon  the  proof  of  a  general  proposition. 
He  calls  these  the  four  experimental  methods. 

§  366.  mill's  four  experimental  methods  of  inquiry. 

1.  Method  of  agreement. 

If  two  or  more  instances  of  the  phenomenon  under  inves- 
tigation have  only  one  circumstance  in  common,  the  circum- 
stance in  which  alone  all  the  instances  agree  is  the  cause  (or 
the  effect)  of  the  phenomenon. 

From  this  we  are  to  understand  that  when  two  facts  are 
uniformly  associated  under  many  and  varied  circumstances, 
they  may  be  regarded  as  cause  and  effect.  Thus,  in  comparing 
cases  in  which  bodies  are  known  to  assume  crystalline  struct- 
ure, but  which  have  no  other  point  of  agreement,  we  find  them 
to  have  only  one  antecedent  in  common — the  deposition  of 
solid  matter  from  a  liquid  state;  from  which  we  conclude  that 
the  solidification  of  a  substance  from  a  liquid  state  is  an  in- 
variable antecedent  of  its  crystallization.  In  the  same  way  we 
observe  that  the  prevalence  of  immorality  is  associated  with 
the  decline  of  the  human  race,  in  all  countries  and  in  all  ages, 
and  we  consider  the  one  as  the  cause  of  the  other. 

2.  Method  of  difference. 

If  an  instance  in  which  the  phenomenon  under  investigation 
occurs,  and  an  instance  in  which  it  does  not  occur,  have  every 
circumstance  in  common,  save  one,  that  one  occurring  only  in 
the  former,  the  circumstance  in  which  the  two  instances  differ 
is  the  effect  or  the  cause,  or  an  indispensable  part  of  the  cause, 
of  the  phenomenon.     From  this  we  see  that  when  two  facts 


Arguments,  351 

constitute  the  sole  difference  between  two  sets  of  circumstances, 
by  being  present  in  the  one  and  absent  from  the  other,  they 
are  to  be  regarded  as  cause  and  effect.  For  example,  when  a 
man  is  shot  through  the  heart,  it  is  by  this  method  that  we 
know  the  cause  of  his  death  to  be  the  gunshot ;  for  he  was  in 
the  fulness  of  life  immediately  before,  and  all  the  circumstances 
were  the  same  except  the  wound.  Again,  when  a  people  like 
the  Arabians  suddenly  emerge  from  obscurity  and  enter  upon 
a  career  of  conquest,  under  such  a  leader  as  Mohammed,  with- 
out the  intervention  of  any  other  circumstance,  we  conclude 
that  he  is  the  cause  of  this  great  revolution. 

3.  Method  of  residues. 

Subduct  from  any  phenomenon  such  part  as  is  known  by 
previous  inductions  to  be  the  effect  of  certain  antecedents,  and 
the  residue  of  the  phenomenon  is  the  effect  of  the  remaining 
antecedents. 

Here  in  a  given  case  we  set  aside  the  effects  of  known  causes, 
and  ascribe  a  remaining  effect  to  a  remaining  cause. 

Thus,  while  many  elements  of  modern  civilization  may  be 
regarded  as  due  to  such  causes  as  Greece,  rRome,  the  Celts, 
Teutons,  and  Arabians;  there  would  still  remain  the  modern 
characteristic  of  humanity,  which  must  be  ascribed  to  the  re- 
maining cause — Christianity. 

4.  Method  of  concomitant  variations.' 

When  a  phenomenon  varies  in  any  manner  according  as  an- 
other phenomenon  varies  in  some  particular  manner  it  is  either 
a  cause  or  an  effect  of  that  phenomenon,  or  is  connected  with 
it  through  some  fact  of  causation. 

According  to  this  we  infer  cause  and  effect  from  the  propor- 
tionate rise  or  fall  of  two  accompanying  facts.  It  is  an  argu- 
ment in  favor  of  the  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul 
that  the  belief  in  it  has  increased,  both  in  refinement  and  in- 
tensity, along  with  the  advance  of  the  human  race  to  higher 
degrees  of  moral  and  intellectual  life. 

It  is  an  argument  against  the  principle  of  arbitrary  govern- 
ment that  it  falls  into  disrepute  as  nations  increase  in  knowl- 
edge and  civilization. 


352  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

§  367.   ENTHYMEME. 

All  truths  are  either  necessary  or  contingent.  An  example 
of  the  former  may  be  found  in  mathematics,  where  the  conclu- 
sions are  either  absolutely  true  or  manifestly  false.  But  in 
human  affairs  this  "  mathematical "  certainty  is  not  attainable, 
and  we  must  be  satisfied  with  something  less.  With  necessary 
truths  rhetoric  has  little  or  nothing  to  do,  for  these  admit  of  no 
dispute.  Its  sphere  comprises  that  wide  extent  of  probabilities 
upon  which  the  human  intellect  is  continually  exercising  its 
powers. 

There  is  an  important  difference  between  rhetoric  and  logic 
as  to  the  form  of  reasoning  respectively  employed.  Logic 
exhibits  proof  by  means  of  a  certain  form  called  syllogism ; 
rhetoric  attains  to  proof  by  means  of  the  enthymeme. 

Two  essential  characteristics  belong  to  the  enthymeme. 
The  first  of  these  is  that  it  deals  with  probable,  not  necessary 
truth.  The  arguments  which  are  made  up  in  the  various  de- 
partments of  literature  are  not  like  those  which  are  made  up  in 
the  various  departments  of  science;  and  the  enthymeme,  as 
the  basis  of  rhetorical  argument,  has  this  characteristic. 

Secondly,  it  is  a  form  of  argument  with  one  premise  suf>- 
pressed.  The  enthymeme  is  sometimes  called  a  rhetorical 
syllogism,  because  it  holds  the  same  relation  to  rhetoric  which 
the  syllogism  holds  to  logic.  The  syllogism  has  always  its  regu- 
lar proposition  and  conclusion,  and  establishes  by  means  of  all 
its  parts  that  which  it  has  proposed.  The  enthymeme  is  satis- 
fied if  merely  what  is  stated  in  it  be  understood.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  form  of  the  syllogism  : 

That  only  is  good  of  which  none  can  make  an  ill  use. 
None  can  make  an  ill  use  of  virtue. 
Therefore  virtue  is  the  only  good. 

The  following  is  the  form  of  the  enthymeme  : 
Virtue  is  the  only  good,  because  none  can  make  an  ill  use  of  it. 

Here  one  of  the  premises  is  omitted,  as  being  understood. 
This  is  the  invariable  mode  in  which  rhetorical  argument  is 
stated,  and  it  is  also  the  mode  employed  in  ordinary  speech — 
^.^.,  War  is  an  evil,  because  it  produces  human  misery. 


Arguments.  353 

§  368.  ARGUMENTS. 

Arguments  may  be  divided  into  three  general  classes : 
I.  Causative;   2.  Illustrative;   3.  Exemplative. 

§  369.   CAUSATIVE   ARGUMENTS. 

I.  Causative. 

This  class  includes  those  arguments  in  which  the  relation 
of  the  premise  to  the  conclusion  is  that  of  cause  and  effect ;  or 
where  the  premise  would  account  for  the  conclusion  if  the  lat- 
ter were  granted.  Thus,  in  the  event  of  one  being  accused  of 
murder,  it  might  be  accounted  for  by  showing  that  the  accused 
had  been  animated  by  feelings  of  hatred  against  the  deceased. 
The  freezing  of  a  river  or  a  lake  could  be  foreseen  from  the 
existence  of  intense  cold.  Upon  the  finding  of  the  body  of  a 
missing  man,  the  theory  that  he  committed  suicide  might  be 
sustained  by  showing  that  he  had  met  with  ruinous  losses,  or 
that  he  was  insane. 

This  is  often  useful  in  judicial  cases,  and  is  employed  to 
show  that  some  justifiable  cause  has  existed  for  an  alleged 
offence,  the  cause  being  a  provocation  of  some  sort.  Thus 
Lord  Erskine,  in  his  speech  on  behalf  of  Stockdale,  on  the 
charge  of  a  libellous  publication,  before  taking  up  the  charac- 
ter of  the  libel  itself,  introduces  preliminary  matter,  in  order 
to  show  that  the  House  of  Commons  had  prosecuted  Hastings 
with  unparalleled  violence,  and  by  allowing  the  charges  to  be 
published  had  provoked  the  publication  of  the  book  in  ques- 
tion. Another  example  may  be  found  in  Burke's  speech  on 
conciliation  with  America.  In  this  he  proceeds  to  show  the 
causes  which  impel  him  to  advocate  peace,  which  are,  first,  the 
state  and  circumstances  of  America;  secondly,  the  evil  of  re- 
sorting to  force ;  thirdly,  the  spirit  of  the  Americans.  In  his 
speech  on  the  Bristol  election,  the  same  orator,  while  defend- 
ing his  course,  replies  to  four  charges  by  means  of  this  kind 
of  argument.  In  answer  to  the  charge  that  he  had  neglected 
his  constituents,  he  brings  forward  as  the  cause  of  his  absence 
the  claims  of  the  higher  work  which  he  had  done  for  them  in 
London.  The  second  charge,  of  giving  free  trade  to  Ireland, 
he  meets  by  showing  that  it  was  necessary  to  the  pacification 
of  that  country.     The  third  and  fourth  charges,  on  the  relief 


354  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

of  insolvent  debtors  and  Roman  Catholics,  he  answers  by 
showing  that  these  measures  were  required  by  justice.  In 
Grattan's  speech  on  the  declaration  of  Irish  right,  most  of  the 
arguments  are  of  this  nature.  He  shows  that  the  declaration 
is  required  from  the  following  causes  :  The  discontent  of  the 
Irish;  their  spirit;  their  demands;  the  hostility  of  English 
legislation;  the  principles  of  1688. 

Dr.  Whately,  in  his  remarks  on  this  subject,  says  that  as 
far  as  anything  stated  as  a  cause  has  a  tendency  to  produce 
any  given  effect,  it  is  an  argument  for  that  effect. 

In  narrative  writing,  particularly  in  fiction,  this  is  known  as 
"  verisimilitude,"  "  vraisemblance,"  or  "  lifelike  portrayal."  The 
more  clear  this  is,  and  the  more  skilfully  it  is  worked  out,  the 
more  apparent  is  the  genius  of  the  writer.  Given  such  char- 
acters and  such  situations,  they  would  probably  act  like  Mac- 
beth, Lear,  and  Othello. 

Two  things  are  necessary  to  be  observed  here:  first,  the 
sequence  of  events ;  and,  secondly,  the  propriety  of  character. 

The  introduction  of  purely  imaginary  circumstances  does 
not  affect  verisimilitude.  A  certain  amount  of  concession  is 
expected  from  the  reader  or  spectator.  Thus  in  Hamlet  the 
appearance  of  the  spectre  implies  the  possibility  of  ghosts;  and 
in  Macbeth  the  existence  of  witches  is  taken  for  granted.  Nor 
is  verisimilitude  affected,  even  when  all  the  circumstances  are 
imaginary,  as  in  Gulliver's  Travels.  Here  the  reader  concedes 
the  existence  of  an  entire  world  of  small  folk  or  of  big  folk. 
Upon  this  the  author  shows  verisimilitude  by  making  all  the 
particulars  correspond,  and  by  carefully  adjusting  all  the  pro- 
portions: 

"  His  Majesty  is  taller  than  the  rest  of  his  courtiers  by  the  breadth  of  my 
thumb-nail,  which  alone  is  sufficient  to  strike  awe  into  the  beholder." 

In  such  writings  as  the  Arabian  Nights  the  reader  concedes 
the  existence  of  a  world  of  magic,  yet  even  here  verisimilitude 
must  be  observed;  and  although  Aladdin's  palace  may  start 
up  in  a  night,  yet  Aladdin  himself  must  be  bound  and  limited 
by  the  passions  and  frailties  of  humanity. 

§  370.    ILLUSTRATIVE    ARGUMENTS. 

2.  Illustrative. 

This  class  includes  those  arguments  in  which  the  relation 


Arguments,  355 

of  the  premise  to  the  conclusion  is  that  of  association,  or  sim- 
ilarity, as  antecedent  and  consequent,  sign  and  thing  signified. 
Thus,  in  the  event  of  any  one  being  accused  of  murder,  the 
fact  of  blood  on  his  clothes  would  be  an  argument  of  this  nat- 
ure. The  freezing  of  a  river  or  a  lake  could  be  predicted  from 
the  low  stage  of  the  thermometer.  Suicide  could  be  argued 
from  the  surroundings  of  the  deceased. 

This  kind  of  argument  enters  more  largely  than  any  other 
into  the  inferences  which  are  drawn  from  the  facts  of  common 
life.  The  savage  trains  his  senses  to  observe  all  the  signs  of 
nature,  and  draws  conclusions  from  them  which  enable  him  to 
support  himself  and  his  dependents.  In  civilized  society  a 
large  proportion  of  the  judgments  of  men  are  based  upon  the 
observation  of  significant  facts. 

To  this  class  belong  many  of  the  arguments  of  the  courts 
of  law.  The  proof  which  is  afforded  in  this  way  is  known  as 
*'  circumstantial  evidence,"  and  the  value  attached  to  it  is  seen 
in  the  saying,  "  Circumstantial  evidence  is  the  strongest  kind 
of  evidence." 

It  also  enters  into  general  literature,  particularly  works  of 
the  imagination.  In  the  modern  novel  the  whole  interest  of 
the  story  is  often  made  to  turn  upon  a  multitude  of  significant 
circumstances,  which  all  lead  onward  to  the  catastrophe ;  such 
as  the  unravelling  of  a  secret,  the  disclosure  of  a  mystery,  the 
revelation  of  a  crime,  the  discovery  of  a  criminal.  An  exam- 
ple of  this  may  be  found  in  the  Bleak  House  of  Dickens, 

Illustrative  arguments  are  direct  and  indirect.  In  the  for- 
mer case  we  judge  for  ourselves;  in  the  latter  we  make  use  of 
the  statements  of  others,  and  this  includes  all  kinds  of  testi- 
mony. 

Testimony  enters  into  the  other  classes  of  arguments  also. 
Its  most  familiar  form  is  to  be  found  in  judicial  oratory,  which 
consists  to  a  great  extent  of  induction  from  evidence.  An  ex- 
ample may  be  found  in  Erskine's  speech  on  behalf  of  Lord 
George  Gordon;  which  consists,  first,  of  arguments  from  the 
evidence  of  the  crown ;  and,  secondly,  of  arguments  from  the 
evidence  of  the  prisoner.  In  the  same  orator's  speech  on  be- 
half of  Hardy,  the  third  general  division  is  an  argument  from 
testimony.  Fox's  speech  on  the  Westminster  Scrutiny  also 
contains  an  argument  of  the  same  kind,  in  which  he  shows 

Q 


356  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

that  the  high-bailiff  had  not  sufficient  evidence  to  warrant  his 
granting  a  scrutiny. 

§  371.   EXEMPLATIVE    ARGUMENTS^ 

3.  Exemplative. 

This  division  includes  those  arguments  in  which  from  exam- 
ples of  a  certain  class  known  and  understood  we  reason  con- 
cerning others  of  the  same  class  which  are  less  known.  Thus, 
if  the  ancient  Roman  Empire  be  taken  as  an  example  of  mili- 
tary monarchies,  we  may  reason  from  this  concerning  the  char- 
acter and  tendencies  of  other  military  monarchies. 

Various  arguments  are  included  in  this  division,  the  chief 
of  which  are  those  which  are  based  upon  (i)  Experience,  (2) 
Analogy,  (3)  Contrast. 

§  372.    EXPERIENCE. 

(i)  Experience. 

This  is  a  kind  of  argument  which  is  based  upon  facts  in  our 
own  experience,  or  that  of  other  men.  In  this  way  are  formed 
many  of  the  opinions  of  common  life,  such  as  those  which  re- 
late to  the  order  of  nature,  the  seasons,  tides,  day  and  night, 
the  weather,  etc.  The  same  method  is  applied  to  historical  and 
political  events;  and  whatever  men  have  done  in  the  past,  we 
expect  them  to  do,  under  similar  circumstances,  in  the  future. 

An  example  of  this  kind  of  argument  is  to  be  found  in 
Burke's  speech  on  American  Taxation,  where,  by  referring  to 
past  experience  in  the  histor}'  of  the  empire,  he  proves,  ist,  that 
if  the  tax  be  repealed  the  Americans  will  not  demand  more 
concessions;  2d,  that  such  repeal  is  quite  consistent  with  the 
policy  of  the  empire ;  and,  3d,  that  it  will  not  derogate  from 
the  dignity  of  the  nation.  Erskine,  in  his  speech  on  behalf 
of  Hardy,  maintains  the  truth  of  his  definition  of  the  law  of 
treason  by  examples  from  the  State  trials. 

§  373.   ANALOGY. 

(2)  Analogy. 

This  is  that  kind  of  argument  in  which,  from  the  facts  in  one 
case  judgment  is  made  concerning  the  facts  in  another  analo- 
gous case. 

Analogy  is  different  from  similarity.     In  similarity  the  two 


Arguments.  357 

things  brought  into  comparison  are  alike ;  in  analogy  they  are 
not  alike,  but  stand  in  similar  relations  to  other  things.  Thus 
the  course  of  history  is  not  similar  to  a  river,  nor  is  eternity 
similar  to  an  ocean,  but  the  two  cases  are  respectively  analo- 
gous; that  is,  the  course  of  history  stands  in  the  same  relation 
to  humanity  which  a  river  holds  to  the  water  which  composes 
it.  Analogy  is  a  more  fruitful  source  of  figurative  expression 
than  similarity,  and  we  see  it  constantly  employed  in  tropes 
of  all  kinds,  in  allegories,  fables,  etc. 

An  example  of  this  may  be  found  in  Fox's  speech  on  the 
East  India  Bill,  in  which  he  shows  that  the  charter  of  the  East 
India  Company  might  be  set  aside,  because  they  had  abused 
their  trust,  from  the  analogous  case  of  King  James,  who  had 
been  deposed  for  the  same  cause.  Grattan  also  argues  in 
favor  of  the  rights  of  the  Irish  people  from  the  analogous  case 
of  the  Americans. 

Lord  Mansfield,  in  tbe  case  of  Evans,  a  Dissenter  prose- 
cuted by  the  city  of  London,  prepares  the  way  for  a  severe 
denunciation  of  the  prosecution  by  dwelling  upon  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Huguenots  in  France,  which  he  makes  use  of  as  a 
case  analogous  to  the  persecution  of  Dissenters  in  England. 

§  374.   CONTRAST. 

{3)  Contrast. 

This  is  that  kind  of  argument  by  which,  from  the  facts  in 
one  case,  we  judge  concerning  another  contrary  case.  Things 
contrary  must  be  distinguished  from  things  dissimilar.  Dis- 
similarity may  be  predicated  of  any  two  things  which  are  un- 
like, as  a  man  and  a  book ;  but  contrariety  is  predicated  of  two 
opposite  things  of  the  same  class,  as  virtue  and  vice,  black  and 
white,  north  and  south. 

Illustrations  of  this  form  of  argument  maybe  found  in  many 
of  the  judgments  of  common  life,  in  proverbs,  maxims,  and 
current  sayings,  especially  those  which  assume  the  form  of 
antithesis;  as,  "A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father,  but  a  fool- 
ish son  is  a  heaviness  to  his  mother."  "  Penny  wise,  pound 
foolish."  "  Man  proposes,  God  disposes."  In  this  way  we 
may  argue  in  favor  of  the  continued  progress  of  modern  civil- 
ization, since  it  is  based  upon  freedom,  from  the  fact  of  the 
decline  of  ancient  civilization,  which  was  based  upon  slavery. 


358  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Fox,  in  his  speech  on  the  Russian  Armament,  employs  this 
argument  by  means  of  a  contrast  between  Louis  XIV.  and 
Pitt.  After  describing  the  misery  to  which  Louis  was  reduced, 
he  points  out  his  constancy,  which  enabled  him  to  struggle  on 
until  he  had  attained  to  the  honorable  peace  of  Utrecht.  "  And 
shall  we,  sir,"  he  says,  "  the  pride  of  our  age  and  the  terror 
of  Europe,  submit  to  this  humiliating  sacrifice  of  our  honor? 
Have  we  suffered  a  defeat  at  Blenheim  V 

Lord  Erskine,  in  his  speech  on  behalf  of  Hadfield,  on  a 
charge  of  high-treason  for  firing  a  pistol  at  the  king,  considers 
the  cases  mentioned  by  the  opposite  counsel,  after  which  he 
turns  to  the  case  of  the  prisoner,  and  shows  that  it  is  altogether 
of  a  contrary  nature. 

§    375-  APPLICATION    OF    THE    DIFFERENT    CLASSES    OF 
ARGUMENTS. 

Causative  arguments  are  associated  chiefly  with  deduction ; 
illustrative  and  exemplative  with  induction  ;  and  they  all  follow 
the  laws  of  reasoning  which  are  respectively  applicable  to  these 
processes.  If  a  further  distinction  be  made,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  first  is  chiefly  concerned  with  matters  of  opinion,  the 
second  with  matters  of  fact,  while  the  third  has  a  more  appro- 
priate reference  to  the  future. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  PRESENTATION  OF  ARGUMENTS. 

§  376.    PRESENTATION   OF   ARGUMENTS. 

In  the  presentation  of  arguments  there  are  various  ways  by 
which  their  effectiveness  may  be  increased.  These  refer  chiefly 
to  clearness  of  statement,  strengthening  of  argument,  and  em- 
phasis of  propositions. 

§  377.    CLEARNESS   OF   STATEMENT   AND   STRENGTHENING   OF 
ARGUMENT. 

I.  In  method,  as  in  style,  the  first  requisite  is  clearness;  for 
in  order  that  we  shall  follow  the  writer's  train  of  thought,  or 


The  Presentation  of  Arguments,  359 

appreciate  the  force  of  his  argument,  each  successive  step 
must  be  readily  and  fully  comprehended. 

ist.  This  is  attained,  in  the  first  place,  by  definitions,  exam- 
ples, and  illustrations,  which  have  already  been  sufficiently 
considered.  - 

2d.  Explanations  of  important  points  often  serve  as  a  valu- 
able introduction  to  the  main  argument.  Thus  Fox,  in  his 
speech  on  the  Westminster  Scrutiny,  prepares  for  his  discussion 
of  the  case  by  a  brief  statement  of  four  different  ways  through 
which,  in  case  of  doubt,  the  law  may  be  discovered. 

3d.  Analysis  and  synthesis  are  of  great  value. 

By  analysis  is  meant  the  explication  of  the  topics  of  classified 
arguments,  and  their  enumeration  in  detail.  Synthesis  is  the 
converse  of  analysis,  and  means  the  combination  of  all  the 
particular  topics  of  argument,  and  their  presentation  in  clas- 
sified order.  Where  these  are  united  the  argument  gains  un- 
usual clearness.  In  this  way  the  writer  leads  up  from  a  lower 
fact  to  a  higher  law,  and  shows  how  the  former  is  contained  in 
the  latter.  At  the  same  time  the  reader  or  hearer  has  a  feel- 
ing of  pleasure  from  being  made  to  share  the  confidence  of  the 
writer,  and  as  he  follows  him  in  his  investigation  step  by  step  the 
argument  appears  clearer  and  the  conclusion  more  convincing. 

§  378.    TRANSITION. 

2.  Transition  has  already  been  noticed  under  the  head  of  har- 
mony; but  further  consideration  is  needed  to  show  its  connec- 
tion with  argument.  Transitions  may  be  so  managed  as  to  be 
of  great  service  in  strengthening  the  argument;  and  that  ar- 
rangement of  the  general  divisions  is  the  best  where  they  are 
so  made  that  one  appears  to  grow  out  of  another. 

An  example  of  this  is  found  in  the  first  part  of  Burke's  speech 
on  American  Taxation,  where  the  transitions  are  the  following : 

That  the  repeal  of  the  tax  on  tea  would  not  lead  to  a  de- 
mand for  further  concessions. 

That  the  repeal  of  the  other  taxes  has  paved  the  way  for  the 
repeal  of  this. 

That  the  exigencies  of  the  East  India  Company  make  the 
repeal  necessary. 

That  the  tax,  though  small,  is  still  unjust;  and  foolish  from 
the  very  fact  of  being  small. 


360  Elements  of  Rhetorie. 

That  its  repeal  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  dignity  of  the 
government,  since  a  repeal  of  other  taxes  has  taken  place  un- 
der the  same  circumstances. 

Another  example  is  found  in  the  speech  of  Lord  Erskine,  in 
behalf  of  Lord  George  Gordon,  when  indicted  for  high-treason  : 

After  the  exordium,  he  begins  by  reflecting  upon  the  attor- 
ney-general for  his  obscure  introduction. 

But  agrees  with  him  in  his  estimate  of  the  greatness  of  the 
crime  of  high-treason. 

On  account  of  this,  the  definition  of  high-treason  is  most 
rigidly  and  explicitly  made  by  the  law. 

But  if  this  definition  be  overstrained,  the  liberty  of  the  sub- 
ject would  be  endangered. 

From  which  he  proceeds  to  give  a  definition  of  high-treason, 
and  lays  down  a  criterion  by  which  it  may  be  tested,  showing 
that  all  departures  from  this  have  been  prudently  checked. 

The  definition  is  then  applied  to  the  present  case,  and  the 
argument  is  brought  to  bear  more  directly  upon  the  charge, 
exhibiting  the  same  characteristic  of  close  connection  and  out- 
growth of  one  argument  from  another.  This  is  the  chief  feat- 
ure of  Lord  Erskine's  style,  and  distinguishes  him  beyond 
others. 

§  379.    AMPLIFICATION. 

3.  Amplification  has  been  already  considered  as  one  of  the 
figures  of  gradation  in  its  connection  with  style ;  but  it  deserves 
a  fuller  notice  as  to  its  importance  in  argument.  Here  it  is 
of  great  value  by  dwelling  upon  any  important  proposition,  and 
thereby  giving  it  greater  prominence.  Burke  is  distinguished 
by  his  frequent  and  successful  use  of  this.  In  the  speeches 
of  Pitt  there  are  also  frequent  examples;  but  one  of  the  best 
is  the  following,  from  Lord  Erskine's  speech  in  behalf  of  Stock- 
dale.  The  proposition  is  that  a  free  press  is  a  good  thing,  and 
that  excessive  restrictions  are  an  evil  : 

"  It  is  the  nature  of  everything  that  is  great  and  useful,  both  in  the  ani- 
mate and  inanimate  world,  to  be  wild  and  irregular,  and  we  must  be  con- 
tent to  take  them  with  the  alloys  that  belong  to  them.  Genius  breaks  from 
the  fetters  of  criticism,  but  its  wanderings  are  sanctioned  by  its  majesty  and 
wisdom  when  it  advances  on  its  path  ;  subject  it  to  the  critic,  and  you  tame 
it  into  dulness.  Mighty  rivers  break  down  their  banks  in  the  winter, 
sweeping  away  to  death  the  flocks  which  are  fattened  on  the  soil  that  they 
fertilize  in  the  summer ;  the  few  may  be  saved  by  the  embankments  from 


The  Presentation  of  Arguments.  361 

drowning,  but  the  flock  noust  perish  from  hunger.  Tempests  occasionally 
shake  our  dwellings  and  dissipate  our  commerce  ;  but  they  scourge  before 
them  the  lazy  elements  which  without  them  would  stagnate  into  pestilence. 
In  like  manner  liberty  herself,  the  last  and  best  gift  of  God  to  his  creatures, 
must  be  taken  just  as  she  is— you  might  pare  her  down  into  bashful  regu- 
larity, and  shape  her  into  a  perfect  model  of  severe  scrupulous  law,  but  she 
would  then  be  liberty  no  longer  ;  and  you  must  be  content  to  die  under  the 
lash  of  this  inexorable  justice  which  you  had  exchanged  for  the  banners  of 
freedom." 

§  380.    DIMINUTION. 

4.  Diminution  is  closely  associated  with  amplification,  and, 
like  it,  has  already  been  considered.  Its  importance  in  ar- 
gument is  equally  great : 

"  Along  with  its  natural  protectors  and  guardians,  learning  will  be  cast 
into  the  mire,  and  trodden  down  under  the  hoofs  of  a  swinish  multitude.''^ — 
Burke. 

The  lower  orders  have  in  all  ages  been  stigmatized  by  con- 
temptuous epithets,  such  as  "  ignobile  vulgus,"  "  profanum  vul- 
gus,"  "sans -culottes,"  "canaille,"  "mob,"  "the  unwashed," 
but  none  of  these  terms  have  more  depreciative  force  than 
Burke's  "swinish  multitude." 

In  the  following  passages  the  same  subject,  namely,  the  in- 
crease of  population  in  the  American  colonies,  is  treated  with 
amplification  and  diminution.  The  first  passage  is  from  Burke's 
speech  on  Conciliation  with  America  : 

"  But  whether  I  put  the  present  numbers  too  high  or  too  low  is  a  matter 
of  little  moment.  Such  is  the  strength  with  which  population  shoots  in  that 
part  of  the  world  that,  state  the  numbers  as  high  as  we  will,  while  the  dis- 
pute continues  the  exaggeration  ends.  While  we  are  discussing  any  given 
magnitude,  they  are  growing  to  it.  While  we  spend  our  time  in  deliberat- 
ing on  the  mode  of  governing  two  millions,  we  shall  find  that  we  have  two 
millions  more  to  manage.  Your  children  do  not  grow  faster  from  infancy 
to  manhood  than  they  spread  from  families  to  communities,  and  from  villages 
to  nations." 

Johnson,  in  Taxation  no  Tyranny,  treats  the  same  proposi- 
tion with  depreciation  : 

"  We  are  told  that  the  continent  of  North  America  contains  three  mill- 
ions, not  only  of  men,  but  of  Whigs^-of  Whigs  fierce  for  liberty  and  disdain- 
ful of  dominion  ;  that  they  multiply  with  the  fecundity  of  their  rattlesnakes, 
so  that  every  quarter  of  a  century  they  double  their  numbers." 


362  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

§  381.    CONDENSATION. 

5.  Instead  of  amplifying  propositions,  it  is  sometimes  neces- 
sary to  condense  them,  so  as  to  present  one  or  more  in  a  com- 
pact mass. 

An  example  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  speech  of  Burke, 
just  quoted.  He  shows  that  force  ought  not  to  be  used  against 
the  colonists,  and  gathers  into  a  brief  compass  four  propositions 
of  great  weight : 

I  St.  That  the  use  of  force  alone  is  but  temporary. 

2d.  That  it  is  uncertain. 

3d.  That  it  impairs  the  object  aimed  at. 

4th.  That  there  is  no  experience  in  favor  of  force  in  the  rule 
of  the  colonies. 

§  382.    COMPREHENSIVENESS. 

6.  By  comprehensiveness  is  meant  the  exhibition  of  a  com- 
plete mastery  of  the  subject,  both  in  itself  and  in  relation  to 
others.  This  was  a  marked  characteristic  of  Burke,  whose 
mind  was  always  full  of  his  theme ;  who  was  always  ready  not 
only  to  reply  to  objections  that  had  been  made,  but  also  to 
answer  all  others  by  anticipation;  and  whose  delight  it  was 
to  pour  forth  from  the  fulness  of  his  knowledge  a  copious 
stream  of  examples,  illustrations,  and  analogies,  by  which  his 
argument  was  enriched  and  enforced.  The  same  quality  is 
also  very  manifest  in  the  writings  of  Macaulay.  A  recent 
writer  says  of  him :  "  He  always  seems  to  make  us  travel  on 
a  high  causeway,  from  which  the  country  to  right  and  left, 
the  Jjrospect  behind  and  that  in  front,  lie  visibly  stretched 
beneath  us,  like  a  plain  from  a  mountain-ridge." 

§  383.    GENERALIZATION. 

7.  Generalization  is  the  application  of  the  principle  of  in- 
duction, so  as  to  rise  from  particular  instances  to  general 
laws.  It  is  effective  in  oratory,  as  enabling  the  speaker  to 
deduce  from  certain  facts,  or  truths,  conclusions  of  the  most 
weighty  character.  This  habit  of  generalization  is  a  charac- 
teristic of  Burke  more  than  of  any  other  orator,  and  some  of 
his  most  memorable  passages  are  presented  in  this  form. 

In  his  speech  on  American  Taxation,  he  says  : 


\ 


The  Presentation  of  Argtimcnts.  363 

"Nothing  in  the  world  can  read  so  awful  and  so  instructive  a  lesson  as 
the  conduct  of  the  ministry  in  this  business,  upon  the  mischief  of  not  having 
large  and  liberal  ideas  in  the  management  of  affairs." 

The  following  is  an  example  from  his  speech  on  the  East 
India  Bill :  * 

"  This  bill,  and  those  connected  with  it,  are  intended  to  form  the  Magna 
Charta  of  Hindostan.  Whatever  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia  is  to  the  liberty 
of  the  princes  and  free  cities  of  the  empire,  and  to  the  three  religions  there 
professed  ;  whatever  the  Great  Charter,  the  Statute  of  Tallage,  the  Petition 
of  Right,  and  the  Declaration  of  Right  are  to  Great  Britain,  these  bills  are 
to  the  people  of  India." 

On  the  Nabob  of  Arcot's  Debts  : 

"  I  think  T  can  trace  all  the  calamities  of  this  country  to  the  single  source 
of  our  not  having  had  steadily  before  our  eyes  a  general,  comprehensive, 
well-connected  and  well-proportioned  view  of  the  whole  of  our  dominions, 
and  a  just  sense  of  their  true  bearings  and  relations.  ...  If  we  make  our- 
selves too  little  for  the  sphere  of  our  duty,  if  we  do  not  stretch  and  expand 
our  minds  to  the  compass  of  their  object,  be  well  assured  that  everything 
about  us  will  dwindle  by  degrees,  until  at  length  our  concerns  are  shrunk  to 
the  dimensions  of  our  minds.  It  is  not  a  predilection  to  mean  sordid  cares 
that  will  avert  the  consequences  of  a  false  estimate  of  our  interest,  or  pre- 
vent the  shameful  dilapidation  into  which  a  great  empire  must  fall  by  mean 
reparations  upon  migtty  ruins." 

§  384.    THE   DEFINITE. 

8.  It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  definite  is  more  forcible 
than  the  indefinite,  the  concrete  than  the  abstract.  In  the  case 
of  oratory,  abstract  discussions  are  listened  to  With  impatience 
or  indifference;  the  preacher  who  expounds  dogmatic  theology 
may  be  orthodox,  but  he  is  not  persuasive.  The  great  orators 
deal  directly  with  facts,  and  only  discuss  principles  when  it  is 
forced  upon  them.  This  preference  for  the  concrete  is  very 
remarkable  in  Burke,  who  himself  makes  no  secret  of  it.  In 
his  speech  on  the  East  India  Bill  of  Fox,  he  says  : 

•'  I  do  not  presume  to  condemn  those  who  argue  h  priori  against  the  pro- 
priety of  leaving  such  extensive  political  powers  in  the  hands  of  a  company 
of  merchants.  I  know  much  is,  and  much  more  may  be  said  against  such 
a  system  ;  but,  with  my  particular  ideas  and  sentiments,  I  cannot  go  that 
way  to  work.  I  feel  an  insuperable  objection  in  giving  my  hand  to  destroy 
any  established  principle  of  government  upon  a  theory,  however  plausible 
that  theory  may  be." 

He  then  goes  on  to  give  facts  as  reasons. 

Q2 


364  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  same  preference  for  the  concrete  and  depreciation  of 
the  abstract  may  be  found  in  the  following  passage  from  his 
speech  on  Conciliation  with  America : 

"  They  are  therefore  not  only  devoted  to  liberty,  but  to  liberty  according 
to  Englisn  ideas  and  principles.  Abstract  liberty,  like  other  mere  abstrac- 
tions, is  not  to  be  found.  Liberty  inheres  in  some  sensible  object,  and 
every  nation  has  formed  to  itself  some  favorite  point  which  by  way  of  emi- 
nence becomes  the  criterion  of  their  happiness.  It  happened,  you  know, 
sir,  that  the  great  contests  for  freedom  in  this  country  were  from  the  earliest 
times  chiefly  upon  the  question  of  taxation." 

§  385.   DESCRIPTION    IN   ORATORY. 

9.  Description  is  very  effective  in  orator}'.  It  deals  with  that 
which  is  definite  and  concrete;  enlarges  upon  it,  and  presents 
a  scene  to  the  imagination  of  the  hearer. 

Famous  examples  occur  in  the  speeches  of  all  great  orators. 
The  description  by  Demosthenes  of  the  panic  in  Athens  after 
the  capture  of  Elateia ;  by  Sheridan,  of  the  horrors  perpetrated 
in  Oude ;  by  Brougham,  of  the  French  Revolution,  are  well- 
known  instances.  No  one,  however,  can  surpass  the  descrip- 
tion given  by  Burke  of  the  descent  of  Hyder  Ali  upon  the  Car- 
natic,  of  which  the  following  is  a  portion  : 

"  While  the  authors  of  all  these  evils  were  idly  and  stupidly  gazing  upon 
this  menacing  meteor,  which  blackened  all  their  horizon,  it  suddenly  burst, 
and  poured  down  the  whole  of  its  contents  upon  the  plains  of  the  Carnatic 
Then  ensued  a  scene  of  woe  the  like  of  which  no  eye  had  seen,  no  heart 
conceived,  and  which  no  tongue  can  adequately  tell.  All  the  horrors  of 
war  before  known  or  heard  of  were  mercy  to  that  new  havoc.  A  storm 
of  universal  fire  blasted  every  field,  consumed  every  house,  destroyed  every 
temple.  The  miserable  inhabitants,  flying  from  their  flaming  villages,  in 
part  were  slaughtered ;  others,  without  regard  to  age,  to  sex,  to  the  respect 
of  rank,  or  sacredness  of  function ;  fathers  torn  from  their  children,  hus- 
bands from  wives»  enveloped  in  a  whirlwind  of  cavalry,  and,  amid  the  goad- 
ing spears  of  drivers  and  the  trampling  of  pursuing  horses,  were  swept  into 
captivity  in  an  unknown  and  hostile  land.  Those  who  were  able  to  evade 
this  tempest  fled  to  the  walled  cities  ;  but,  escaping  from  fire,  sword,  or 
exile,  they  fell  into  the  jaws  of  famine." 

§  386.   EMPHASIS    OF    PROPOSITIONS. 

The  subject  of  emphasis  has  already  been  considered  with 
reference  to  words.  When  applied  to  propositions  it  gives  them 
greater  force,  and  not  only  calls  attention  to  them,  but  also 


The  Presentation  of  Arguments,  365 

makes  them  of  more  importance  in  the  argument.  There  are 
various  ways  of  emphasizing  propositions,  the  chief  of  which 
are  the  following: 

§  387.    ASSERTION. 

1.  Strong  emphasis  is  laid  upon  propositions  when  they 
are  put  forth  with  a  positive  declaration  of  their  truth ;  for 
then  the  speaker  assumes  that  from  his  assertion  there  can 
be  no  appeal : 

"  Besides,  sir,  we  have  no  election.  If  we  were  base  enough  to  desire  it, 
it  is  now  too  late  to  retire  (torn  the  contest.  There  is  no  retreat  but  in 
submission  or  slavery." — P.  Henry. 

"  This  embargo  must  be  repealed.  You  cannot  enforce  it  for  any  impor- 
tant period  of  time  longer."— Josiah  Quincey. 

§  388.   DENIAL. 

2.  Denial  is  merely  another  form  of  assertion,  the  negative 
being  employed  instead  of  the  positive  :  as — 

"It  was  not  I  who  inspired  the  Hungarian  people.  No.  It  was  the 
Hungarian  people  who  inspired  me." — Kossuth. 

§  389.    APOPHTHEGM. 

3.  Sometimes  a  proposition  is  summed  up  in  the  form  of 
an  apophthegm,  and  is  thereby  rendered  more  impre^ive  and 
emphatic.     Burke's  speeches  and  writings  abound  in  this : 

"  The  blood  of  man  should  never  be  shed  but  to  redeem  the  blood  of 
man." 

'*  Magnanimity  in  politics  is  not  seldom  the  truest  wisdom,  and  a  great 
empire  and  little  minds  go  ill  together." 

"  Slavery  they  can  have  anywhere.  It  is  a  weed  that  grows  in  every 
soil." 

"  My  hold  of  the  colonies  is  in  the  close  affection  that  grows  from  com- 
mon names,  from  kindred  blood,  from  similar  privileges,  and  equal  protec- 
tion. These  are  ties  which,  though  light  as  air,  are  strong  as  links  of 
iron." 

"  Parsimony  is  not  economy." 

"  Nothing  turns  out  to  be  so  oppressive  and  unjust  as  a  feeble  govern- 
ment." 

§  390.  DIGRESSION. 

4.  Digression  is  often  useful.  This  has  already  been  suf- 
ficiently illustrated.     Sometimes  it  is  made   not  so  much  for 


366  Elements  of  RJietoric, 

itself  as  for  the  purpose  of  corning  back  with  renewed  force ; 
and  this  is  so  frequently  done  that  it  was  formerly  set  down  as 
a  figure  of  speech  under  the  name  of  "  reditus,"  or  "  retro- 
gressio." 

Fox,  in  his  speech  on  the  Russian  Armament,  alludes  to 
Adam  Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations,  and  his  doctrine  of  the 
division  of  labor,  of  which  he  makes  a  scornful  application 
to  the  ministry,  and  then  proceeds  to  a  new  attack. 

Erskine,  in  his  speech  on  behalf  of  Hardy,  digresses  to  con- 
sider the  effect  of  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  on  the  law  of 
treason,  and  indulges  in  a  brief  summary  of  the  histor\'  of  the 
constitution  up  to  that  time,  after  which  he  returns  with  fresh 
vigor  to  the  case  in  question. 

Sir  James  Mackintosh  also,  in  the  case  of  Jean  Peltier,  di- 
gresses to  consider  the  state  of  things  on  the  continent  of  Eu- 
rope, and  then  returns  to  England  as  the  only  country  where 
the  press  is  free. 

§  391.  REPETITION   OF    PROPOSITIONS. 

5.  The  importance  of  repetition  has  already  been  considered 
with  reference  to  words.  It  also  serves  to  give  emphasis  to 
propositions  by  impressing  them  upon  the  mind  with  renewed 
force. 

Fox,  in  his  speech  on  the  Westminster  Scrutiny,  gives  a 
remarkable  example.  In  the  course  of  his  exordium  he 
said : 

•*  But,  sir,  I  have  no  reason  to  expect  indulgence,  nor  do  I  know  that  I 
shall  meet  with  bare  justice  in  this  House." 

Upon  this  there  arose  expressions  of  disapprobation,  where- 
upon he  repeated  this  with  greater  emphasis : 

*'  Sir,  I  have  no  reason  to  expect  indulgence,  nor  do  I  know  that  I  shall 
meet  with  bare  justice  in  this  House." 

He  then  went  on  to  show  that  he  was  warranted  in  using 
these  words,  and  repeated  them  twice  again  with  additional 
and  increasing  emphasis,  after  which  he  proceeded  in  the  dis- 
cussion. 

This  was  a  peculiarity  of  the  style  of  Fox,  and  many  other 
examples  may  be  found  in  bis  orations.     In  the  same  speech 


The  Presentation  of  Arguments.  367 

there  occurs  the  following,  which  is  a  repetition  of  his  charge 
against  the  high-bailiff,  in  different  words,  with  greater  effect : 

*'  If  he  has  spoken  truth  in  the  vestry,  he  is  an  arrant  liar  before  the 
House ;  or  if  he  vindicated  himself  before  you  upon  pure  principles,  he 
has  grossly  and  wickedly  deceived  me  and  all  who  heard  the  contempt  he 
expressed  in  the  vestry  for  that  information  upon  which  he  expatiated  at 
the  bar  of  this  House  with  such  extraordinary  reverence." 

§  392.   RECAPITULATION. 

6.  Recapitulation  has  all  the  force  of  repetition.  It  re- 
freshes the  memory  of  the  hearer,  brings  up  once  more  those 
propositions  which  might  be  forgotten,  and  enables  the  speaker 
to  proceed  with  renewed  force  upon  the  continuation  of  his 
argument. 

Fox,  on  the  Westminster  Scrutiny,  makes  use  of  the  follow- 
ing recapitulation  : 

*•  Having  now,  Mr.  Speaker,  gone  through  the  various  depositions  that 
have  been  made  before  you ;  having  from  the  evidence  shown  that  the  al- 
leged grounds  of  the  high-bailiflf's  motives  were  the  direct  reverse  of  those 
he  declares  to  this  House  to  have  been  his  motives — having  shown  that  he 
was  in  habits  of  clandestine  intercourse  with  my  opponents — having  shown 
that  he  was  in  the  constant  course  of  receiving  ex  parte  information  in  an 
illicit  and  shameful  secrecy — having  shown  that  he  positively  and  solemnly 
denied  the  series  of  iniquitous  proceedings  in  the  vestry  which  he  boldly 
avows  at  your  bar — having  shown  that  the  poll  was  as  much  a  scrutiny  as 
any  poll  can  possibly  be — having  explained  my  views  in  the  event  of  any 
demand  of  a  scrutiny — having  described  the  species  of  intimidation  used  to 
this  man,  and  confirmed  that,  so  far  from  exculpating,  it  tends  greatly  to 
criminate  him — having  shown  this,  sir,  and  shown  it  by  the  evidence  which 
you  have  heard  at  your  bar,  I  shall  conclude  this  part  of  my  evidence  with 
submitting  to  every  man  of  honor  and  candor  who  hears  me,  whether  he 
really  thinks  that  the  high-bailiff  of  Westminster  exercised  a  sound  and 
honest  discretion  in  granting  a  scrutiny,  supposing  for  argument's  sake  that 
he  actually  possessed  the  power  to  grant  it." 


368  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE    INTRODUCTION. 
§  393.   INTRODUCTION. 

The  object  of  the  introduction  is  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
presentation  of  a  work,  either  by  general  remarks  in  order  to 
avoid  abruptness,  or  by  particular  statements  which  may  have 
reference  to  the  work  itself.  The  introduction  is  of  many  dif- 
ferent sorts,  and  these  may  be  classified,  either  according  to 
the  kind  of  composition  to  which  they  belong,  or  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  introduction  itself. 

Of  these  let  us  first  consider  the  introduction  in  different 
kinds  of  composition. 

§  394.   IN    NARRATIVE. 

In  most  of  the  great  narrative  poems,  such  as  the  Iliad,  the 
^neid,  and  other  epics,  the  introduction  consists  of  an  invoca- 
tion of  the  muse.  In  Dante's  Divina  Commedia  the  opening 
is  abrupt.  This  is  the  case  with  many  metrical  romances,  as 
the  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  and  ballads.  A  piece  of  de- 
scription is  sometimes  made  use  of,  as  in  the  Lady  of  the 
Lake,  and  again  a  preliminary  reflection,  as  in  the  Siege  of 
Corinth. 

The  opening  in  history  is  generally  explanatory.  In  He- 
rodotus the  introduction  proper  is  remarkably  simple:  "This 
is  an  exposition  of  the  historical  researches  of  Herodotus  the 
Halicarnassian."  In  Thucydides  there  is  a  survey  of  Greece 
down  to  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  War,  and  a  statement 
of  the  aim  and  scope  of  the  work.  In  Gibbon's  History 
the  introduction  takes  up  three  chapters,  and  consists  of  a 
comprehensive  survey  of  the  Roman  world  in  the  age  of  the 
Antonines. 

In  prose  fiction  the  varieties  are  numerous,  but  they  may  be 


The  Introduction.  369 

reduced  to  three  grand  classes,  referring  to  action,  character, 
or  scenery. 

ist  Action.  This  forms  a  direct  opening,  where  the  author 
plunges  at  once  into  the  midst  of  his  story. 

2d.  Character.  Here  the  story  opens  with  a  conversation 
between  some  of  the  characters.  It  is  an  imitation  of  the 
dramatic  mode  of  treatment,  and  is  more  abrupt  than  the 
others. 

3d.  Description.  This  opening  is  made  up  of  a  description 
of  scenery. 

§  395.    IN    THE    DRAMA. 

The  work  of  the  drama  may  be  introduced  in  various  ways, 
of  which  the  following  is  a  classification  : 

ist.  Narrative  or  descriptive.  In  the  ancient  plays  this  was 
very  generally  adopted.  This  is  commonly  called  the  prologue, 
a  term  which,  however,  in  some  cases  is  applied  to  preliminary 
remarks  that  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  play  which  they  pre- 
cede. 

2d.  Characters.  Here  characters  are  introduced  abruptly, 
engaged  in  conversation,  as  in  Hamlet. 

3d.  Lyric.  An  opening  is  sometimes  furnished  by  lyric 
poetry.  The  Supplices  of  ^schylus  opens  in  this  way.  Mac- 
beth opens  with  the  chorus  of  the  witches.  Schiller's  Wilhelm 
Tell  is  preceded  by  a  song. 

§  396.   IN    ORATORY. 

The  introduction  in  oratory  is  called  the  exordium.  It  is 
of  more  importance  here  than  in  any  branch  of  composition, 
and  requires  more  careful  handling.  Its  object  may  be  stated 
as  follows  :  To  prepare  the  hearer  to  listen  readily  to  what  is 
to  be  said  by  seeking  to  gain  his  good-will,  his  attention,  and 
the  desire  for  further  information. 

The  following  are  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  exordium  : 

ist.  A  tone  of  modesty.  Insolence,  vanity,  self-conceit,  or 
self-assertion  excite  repugnance,  and  turn  the  audience  against 
the  speaker  at  the  outset ;  while  an  air  of  self-depreciation  will 
have  the  opposite  effect.  Thus  Erskine  says:  "Alas,  gentle- 
men, who  am  I  ?     A  young  man  of  little  experience,"  etc. 

2d.  Conciliation  of  the  hearers  by  compliment.    This  is  done 


370  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

by  referring  to  some  quality  upon  which  they  pride  themselves. 
Demosthenes,  in  his  exordium  to  the  speech  on  the  Crown,  al- 
ludes to  the  good  feeling  of  the  Athenians  towards  himself,  and 
their  piety  towards  the  gods.  St.  Paul,  in  his  address  to  the 
Athenians,  conciliates  them  by  referring  to  their  general  re- 
ligious feeling. 

Erskine,  in  his  speech  on  Hardy,  thanks  the  court  for  in- 
dulgence shown  him ;  and  in  his  speech  on  Stockdale  com- 
pliments the  jury  for  their  impartiality.  This  course  is  es- 
pecially valuable  when  the  cause  is  unpopular  and  the  major- 
ity are  hostile. 

3.  Sometimes  the  opposite  course  is  employed,  and  the  audi- 
ence is  boldly  defied.  This,  however,  is  but  rare,  and  can  only 
be  done  by  a  speaker  of  acknowledged  superiority.  The  best 
example  of  this  is  the  exordium  of  Fox,  in  his  speech  on  the 
Westminster  Scrutiny.  The  majority  is  against  him ;  they  are 
trying  to  crush  him;  conciliation  is  usele.ss;  he  therefore  de- 
fies them  ;  he  tells  them  that  he  expects  no  indulgence  or  even 
justice;  he  is  interrupted,  but  only  reiterates  it  with  greater 
vehemence ;  and  at  length,  after  repeating  it  four  times,  he 
proceeds  with  the  discussion,  having  reduced  them  to  silence 
by  his  very  boldness,  and  forced  them  to  listen. 

4.  The  presentation  of  an  important  point.  Demosthenes, 
in  his  speech  on  the  Crown,  lays  stress  upon  the  importance  to 
himself  of  liberty  in  the  arrangement  of  his  topics,  affirming 
that  the  adversary  should  not  decide  as  to  the  order  of  thought 
to  be  adopted  in  the  defence. 

Sheridan,  in  his  speech  against  Warren  Hastings,  disclaims 
any  vindictive  feeling,  and  reminds  the  court  that  the  prosecu- 
tion does  not  endanger  the  life  of  the  accused. 

5.  A  reference  is  made  to  something  in  the  occasion  or  in 
the  course  of  the  previous  debate,  from  which  by  an  easy  and 
natural  transition  the  speaker  passes  on  to  his  discussion. 

Burke,  in  his  speech  on  Conciliation  with  America,  states 
that  a  favorable  juncture  has  arisen  in  which  to  review  the 
subject  with  an  unusual  degree  of  care  and  calmness.  The 
same  orator  opens  his  speech  on  the  Nabob  of  Arcot's  Debts 
with  severe  strictures  upon  Mr.  Dundas. 

Fox  is  usually  very  short  in  the  exordium.  Thus  he  opens 
his  speech  on  the  rejection  of  Bonaparte's  Overtures  in  this 


The  Introduction.  371 

simple  way  :  '''■At  so  late  an  hour,  I  am  sure  you  will  do  me  the 
justice  to  believe  that  I  do  not  mean  to  go  at  length  into  the 
discussion  of  this  great  question."  Again,  in  his  speech  on  the 
Russian  Armament,  he  begins  by  simply  giving  his  reasons  for 
not  speaking  before. 

Pitt,  in  his  speech  on  Bonaparte's  Overtures,  opens  by  say- 
ing that  the  question  has  been  placed  by  previous  speakers  on 
the  very  ground  on  which  he  desires  to  discuss  it. 

6.  Brevity  and  directness.  These  qualities  are  generally  ex- 
hibited by  Fox,  who  opens  his  speeches  in  a  brief  and  business- 
like manner.  The  same  may  be  seen  in  the  speeches  of  Chat- 
ham, who  plunges  at  once  into  his  subject  with  but  few  prelim- 
inary words.  Thus  the  latter  opens  his  speech  on  Removing 
the  Troops  from  Boston  in  the  following  way : 

"  My  lords,  after  more  than  six  weeks'  possession  of  the  papers  now  be- 
fore you  on  a  subject  so  momentous,  at  a  time  when  the  fate  of  the  nation 
hangs  on  every  hour,  the  ministry  have  at  length  condescended  to  submit 
to  the  consideration  of  this  House  intelligence  from  America,  with  which 
your  lordships  and  the  public  have  been  long  and  fully  acquainted." 

With  this  introduction,  ha  passes  on  at  once  to  criticise  the 
measures  of  the  ministry,  and  the  progress  of  affairs  in  America. 

The  greatest  speech  of  the  Earl  of  Chatham  has  an  exordium 
which  is  marked  by  the  same  brevity  and  directness : 

"  I  rise,  my  lords,  to  declare  my  sentiments  on  this  most  solemn  and 
serious  subject.  It  has  imposed  a  load  upon  my  mind  which,  I  fear,  noth- 
ing can  remove,  but  which  impels  me  to  endeavor  its  alleviation  by  a  free 
and  unreserved  communication  of  my  sentiments." 

This  is  the  exordium.  He  now  proceeds  to  criticise  the  ad- 
dress to  the  throne  in  that  wonderful  speech  whose  fiery  and 
vehement  language  is  familiar  to  every  schoolboy  in  England 
and  America. 

7.  Sometimes  there  is  no  exordium. 

Cicero's  first  oration  against  Catiline  is  an  example : 

"  Quousque  tandem  abutere,  Catilina,  patientia  nostra." 

§  397.  THE    INTRODUCTION    CONSIDERED   WITH    REFERENCE   TO 
ITS   OWN   CHARACTER. 

In  the  next  place,  the  introduction  may  be  considered  with 
reference  to  its  own  character,  and  the  various  kinds  may  be 


3/2  Elements  of  Rhetorie. 

classified  according  as  they  involve  explanation,  preparatioii, 
persuasion,  or  directness. 

1.  Explanation.  In  history  and  fiction  the  introduction  may 
give  explanation  by  means  of  narrative  or  description.  In  ex- 
position it  may  furnish  the  cause  why  the  work  has  been  put 
forth,  or  present  an  analogy,  an  example,  or  an  illustration,  or 
it  may  correct  some  prevalent  error. 

2.  Preparation.  The  introduction  may  serve  to  prepare  the 
mind  for  that  which  is  to  follow.  In  poetry,  this  may  be  done 
by  an  invocation  to  the  muses,  lyrical  preludes,  general  reflec- 
tions, descriptions,  and  the  like.  In  oratory  the  preparatory 
introduction  may  be  of  a  general  character,  made  use  of  merely 
to  furnish  an  easy  passage  to  the  discussion.  In  the  drama 
it  will  comprehend  those  preliminary  scenes  which  lead  the 
way  to  the  action  of  the  piece. 

3.  Persuasion.  This  includes  those  introductions  in  all  nar- 
rative which  stimulate  the  attention,  rouse  curiosity,  and  thus 
draw  the  reader  on  to  read  further.  In  oratory  it  mcludes  all 
forms  of  conciliation,  compliment,  praise,  etc.,  by  which  the 
hearer  is  induced  to  listen  with  greater  readiness. 

4.  Directness.  This  includes  all  those  introductions  which 
are  characterized  by  brevity,  or  even  abruptness,  in  which  the 
writer  or  speaker  appears  anxious  to  lose  no  time,  but  to  hurry 
on  to  the  discussion  as  soon  as  possible. 

§  398.  GENERAL  NATURE  OF  THE  INTRODUCTION. 

The  introduction  is  designed  to  prepare  the  way  for  that 
which  is  to  follow,  either  in  narration  or  exposition. 

Remarks  have  already  been  made,  in  connection  with  the 
order  of  thought,  upon  the  importance  of  reserving  the  strongest 
topic  until  the  last  place.  In  some  cases  the  argument  grows 
steadily  in  force;  in  other  cases,  while  the  strongest  is  reserved 
for  the  close,  an  important  point  is  presented  at  the  outset; 
but  the  introduction  should  always  be  regarded  as  something 
standing  apart  from  the  discussion,  and  should  not  interfere 
with  the  order  of  thought  which  is  there  carried  out.  It  should 
not  promise  or  announce  too  much.  It  should  not  anticipate 
any  of  those  more  important  arguments  which  have  already 
been  allotted  to  their  own  place,  and  which  would  lose  their 
effectiveness  if  stated  prematurely;  and  as  a  general  thing  it 


The  Conclusion 

should  be  presented  in  simple  language 
Many  good  introductions  are  quite  colorless,  and  the  best  end 
which  they  can  attain  to  is  to  afford  an  easy  and  attractive 
entrance  to  the  discussion. 

Cicero  recommends  in  his  De  Oratore  that  it  be  not  written 
until  the  work  itself  is  finished,  when  it  may  suggest  the  fitting 
introduction,  which  shall  possess  the  precise  character  which 
the  writer  may  wish  it  to  have. 

§  399.   THE    PREFACE. 

The  preface  is  a  species  of  introduction,  but  differs  from  it 
in  character  as  well  as  in  name.  The  introduction  belongs  to 
the  discussion  itself,  and  is  inseparable  from  it.  The  preface 
belongs  rather  to  the  writer,  and  is  intended  to  convey  a  gen- 
eral statement  of  his  own  personal  aims.  The  preface  stands 
apart  from  the  work,  and  may  refer  to  anything  whatever,  but 
the  introduction  must  refer  more  or  less  to  the  subject-matter. 


CHAPTER  X. 
THE   CONCLUSION. 


§  400.    THE   CONCLUSION. 

The  conclusion,  like  the  introduction,  deserves  special  Con- 
sideration. As  the  latter  prepares  the  way  for  entering  upon 
the  discussion,  so  the  former  furnishes  the  proper  means  of 
retiring  from  it. 

The  conclusion  may  be  considered  both  with  reference  to 
the  different  kinds  of  composition  in  which  it  is  used  and  also 
with  reference  to  its  own  character. 

In  the  first  place  let  us  consider  the  conclusion  in  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  composition. 

§   401.    IN    NARRATIVE    FICTION. 

I.  In  all  works  of  the  imagination,  whether  in  prose  or  poetry, 
the  story  reaches  a  natural  end  in  some  event  of  conspicuous 
interest.     This  is  generally  not  the  catastrophe,  but  something 


374  Elements  of  RJutoric. 

of  a  less  exciting  character.  Thus  in  the  Iliad  the  catastrophe 
is  the  death  of  Hector  and  the  vengeance  of  Achilles ;  but  the 
conclusion  consists  of  the  milder  scenes  connected  with  the 
obsequies  of  the  Trojan  hero.  In  the  Odyssey  the  catastrophe 
is  found  in  the  triumph  of  Ulysses ;  but  the  conclusion  is  con- 
cerned with  the  restoration  of  peace  in  Ithaca.  In  the  yEneid 
we  have  an  exceptional  case,  in  which  the  catastrophe,  the 
death  of  Turnus,  is  also  the  conclusion. 

In  prose  fiction  the  same  thing  may  be  seen,  and  most  fre- 
quently the  conclusion  follows  the  catastrophe,  and  consists  of 
milder  subjects.  In  this  department  of  literature  there  are 
three  leading  classes,  which  may  be  set  down  thus : 

I  St.  Where  the  story  reaches  its  end  in  the  attainment  of  the 
purpose  of  the  leading  character,  whether  of  love,  vengeance, 
or  successful  effort.  This  is  the  class  that  is  most  frequently 
met  with. 

2d.  Where  the  story  ends  with  a  general  review  of  the  mi- 
nor characters,  and  a  statement  of  their  fortunes  in  life.  This 
is  met  with  in  various  novels  of  Scott,  Bulwer,  Dickens,  and 
others,  but  is  not  much  used  by  the  novelists  of  the  present 
day. 

3d.  Where  the  action  terminates  in  favor  of  the  chief  char- 
acters, and  the  author  stops  abruptly,  leaving  the  rest  to  the 
imagination. 

§  402.    IN    HISTORY. 

2.  In  historical  works  there  are  two  kinds  of  conclusion : 
ist.  Where  the  story  comes  to  a  natural  end  at  the  period 
selected ;  2d.  Where  the  historian  closes  with  a  general  survey 
of  his  subject,  such  as  the  conclusion  of  Gibbon's  History, 
which  is  given  in  the  following  manner : 

"Of  these  pilgrims,  and  of  every  reader,  the  attention  will  be  excited  by 
a  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  ;  the  greatest,  per- 
haps, and  most  awful  scene  in  the  history  of  mankind.  The  various  causes 
and  progressive  effects  are  connected  with  many  of  the  events  most  inter- 
esting in  human  annals — the  artful  policy  of  the  Caesars,  who  long  maintain- 
ed the  name  and  image  of  a  free  republic  ;  the  disorder  of  military  despot- 
ism ;  the  rise,  establishment,  and  sects  of  Christianity ;  the  foundation  of 
Constantinople  ;  the  division  of  the  monarchy  ;  the  invasion  and  settle- 
ments of  the  barbarians  of  Germany  and  Scythia  ;  the  institutions  of  the  civil 
law  \  the  character  and  religion  of  Mohammed ;  the  temporal  sovereignty 


The  Conclusion.  375 

of  the  popes  ;  the  restoration  and  decay  of  the  Western  Empire  of  Charle- 
magne ;  the  Crusades  of  the  Latins  in  the  East ;  the  conquests  of  the  Sar- 
acens and  Turks  ;  the  ruin  of  the  Greek  Empire  ;  the  state  and  revolutions 
of  Rome  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  historian  may  applaud  the  importance 
and  variety  of  his  subject ;  but  while  he  is  conscious  of  his  own  imperfec- 
tions, he  must  often  accuse  the  deficiency  of  his  materials.  It  was  among 
the  ruins  of  the  Capitol  that  I  first  conceived  the  idea  of  a  work  which  has 
amused  and  exercised  near  twenty  years  of  my  life,  and  which,  however  in- 
adequate to  my  own  wishes,  I  finally  deliver  to  the  curiosity  and  candor 
of  the  public." 

§  403.    IN    BIOGRAPHY. 

3.  In  biography  three  principal  kinds  of  conclusion  may  be 
seen  : 

I  St.  The  death  of  the  subject. 
2d.  A  discussion  of  the  character  of  the  subject. 
3d.  Reflections  suggested  by  the  subject. 
The  best  example  of  this  last  is  in  the  noble  passage  with 
which  Tacitus  concludes  his  life  of  Agricola  : 

"If  there  be  any  mansion  for  the  souls  of  the  righteous;  if,  as  wise 
men  think,  great  souls  be  not  extinguished  with  the  body,  mayest  thou  rest 
in  peace ;  and  summon  us,  thy  family,  from  unavailing  regret  and  effemi- 
nate lamentations  to  the  contemplation  of  those  virtues  of  thine  upon  which 
it  is  not  right  to  bestow  either  grief  or  tears.  Let  us  honor  thee  rather  with 
our  admiration  than  with  short-lived  encomiums,  and,  if  nature  allow  it, 
with  our  imitation.  This  is  true  respect,  this  is  the  pious  duty  of  all  who 
are  most  intimately  connected  with  thee.  To  thy  daughter  also  and  to  thy 
wife  I  should  enjoin  this,  so  to  revere  the  memory  of  the  father  and  of  the 
husband  that  they  may  cherish  within  their  hearts  all  his  words  and  deeds, 
and  retain  the  form  and  features  of  his  mind  rather  than  of  his  person. 
This  I  say,  not  because  I  think  that  any  restriction  should  be  put  upon 
statues  which  are  formed  out  of  marble  or  brass,  but  because  the  represen- 
tations of  the  face,  like  the  human  face  itself,  are  frail  and  perishable,  while 
the  form  of  the  mind  is  eternal ;  it  cannot  be  seized  and  expressed  by  for- 
eign substance  or  artistic  skill,  only  in  character  can  this  be  done.  All 
that  we  have  loved  in  Agricola,  all  that  we  have  admired,  still  remains,  and 
will  continue  to  remain  preserved  in  the  minds  of  men  in  the  succession  of 
ages  and  in  the  records  of  fame.  For  while  oblivion  shall  overwhelm  many 
ancient  heroes  as  if  they  were  inglorious  and  unknown,  Agricola  shall  still 
survive  delineated  with  truth  and  handed  down  to  posterity." 

§  404.    IN    THE    DRAMA. 

4.  In  tragedy  the  catastrophe  sometimes  forms  the  conclusion, 
as  in  the  Prometheus  of  ^schylus,  where  the  chief  character 
is  left  nailed  to  his  rock,  hurling  defiance  at  his  enemy,  and 


376  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

invoking  all  nature.  But  in  the  majority  of  cases  there  are 
some  after-scenes  designed  to  bring  the  audience  down  from 
the  excitement  of  the  play  to  the  calm  of  common  life.  The 
taste  of  the  present  day,  however,  seems  opposed  to  this ;  for 
in  stage  representations  of  Shakespeare's  plays  his  final  scenes 
are  generally  omitted,  and  the  piece  ends  abruptly  with  the 
catastrophe. 

In  comedy  the  conclusion  often  consists  of  a  little  tableau, 
with  by-play  and  reference  to  the  audience.  This,  however,  is 
a  modern  device,  and  the  action  of  such  pieces  generally  ter- 
minates in  the  attainment  of  the  wishes  of  the  principal  char- 
acters. 

§  405.    IN   ORATORY. 

In  oratory  the  conclusion  is  called  the  peroration.  Its  im- 
portance here  is  greater  than  in  any  other  department  of 
literature. 

The  following  are  the  leading  characteristics  : 

ist.  A  brief  summing  up  of  the  heads  of  arguments. 

2d.  The  speaker  enlarges  upon  some  topic  that  has  already 
been  brought  forward;  or  some  general  proposition;  or  the 
status  itself. 

3d.  An  appeal,  exhortation,  or  other  expression  of  emotion. 

4th.  Description. 

ist.  The  first  of  these  is  not  often  made  use  of  in  oratory. 

2d.  The  conclusion  is  often  an  enforcement  of  some  promi- 
nent topic. 

Chatham  concludes  his  speech  on  the  Removal  of  Troops 
from  Boston  in  this  way  : 

"  To  conclude,  my  lords,  if  the  ministers  thus  persevere  in  misadvising 
and  misleading  the  king,  I  will  not  say  that  they  can  alienate  the  affections 
of  his  subjects  from  the  crown,  but  I  will  affirm  that  they  will  make  the 
crown  not  worth  his  wearing ;  I  will  not  say  that  the  king  is  betrayed,  but 
I  will  pronounce  that  the  kingdom  is  undone." 

Burke  concludes  his  speech  on  Conciliation  with  America  in 
a  w-ell-known  passage,  of  which  the  following  are  the  opening 
sentences : 

"  For  that  service,  for  all  services,  my  trust  is  in  her  interest  in  the  Brit- 
ish Constitution,  my  hold  of  the  colonies  is  in  the  close  affection  which 
grows  from  common  names,  from  kindred  blood,  from  similar  privileges, 
and  from  equal  protection.  These  are  the  ties  which,  though  light  as  air, 
are  as  strong  as  links  of  iron." 


The  Conclusion.  377 

The  peroration  of  the  same  orator's  speech  against  Warren 
Hastings  ends  with  a  series  of  sentences  containing  reiterated 
charges  of  impeachment. 

In  the  speech  on  the  Nabob  of  Arcot's  Debts  the  peroration 
affirms  that  India,  though  a  distasteful  subject  to  some,  is 
closely  connected  with  the  public  interest  and  national  repu- 
tation. 

The  peroration  of  Fox's  speech  on  the  East  India  Bill  be- 
gins as  follows : 

"  I  shall  now,  sir,  conclude  my  speech  with  a  few  words  upon  the  opinion 
of  the  right  honorable  gentleman  (Pitt).  He  says  '  he  will  stake  his  char- 
acter upon  the  danger  of  this  bill.'  I  meet  him  in  his  own  phrase,  and  op- 
pose him  character  to  character.  I  risk  my  all  upon  the  excellence  of  this 
bill.  I  risk  upon  it  whatever  is  most  dear  to  me,  whatever  men  most  value 
— the  character  of  integrity,  of  talents,  of  honor,  of  present  reputation  and 
future  fame,"  etc. 

Pitt  closes  his  speech  on  Napoleon's  Overtures  by  showing 
the  reasons  that  exist  to  hope  for  success  in  the  war. 

Sir  James  Mackintosh,  in  his  speech  on  Peltier,  concludes 
by  showing  that  as  English  juries  had  formerly  done  their 
duty  in  spite  of  the  wishes  of  Cromwell,  so  now  the  jury 
should  do  justice,  even  if  they  should  arouse  the  wrath  of 
Napoleon. 

3d.  The  peroration  is  sometimes  directly  expressive  of  emo- 
tion. Among  the  more  striking  characteristics  of  this  class 
are  the  following : 

A  personal  reference. 

Erskine,  in  his  speech  on  Gordon,  takes  it  for  granted  that 
his  cause  is  gained,  makes  a  reference  to  himself,  and  accounts 
for  his  zeal  on  the  ground  of  his  sincerity. 

An  appeal. 

Demosthenes  concludes  his  speech  on  the  Crown  with  a 
prayer  to  the  gods  to  dispose  the  enemies  of  their  country  to 
better  things,  or,  if  they  are  incurable,  to  pursue  them  with 
destruction  over  sea  and  land. 

Brougham  concludes  his  speech  on  Parliamentary  Reform  in 
the  same  way.  He  warns  the  lords  of  the  danger  of  delay,  and 
implores  them  on  bended  knee  not  to  reject  the  bill.  His 
speech  in  behalf  of  Queen  Caroline  also  concludes  in  this 
way. 


378  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

A  warning. 

Fox,  in  his  speech  on  the  Westminster  Scrutiny,  concludes 
with  a  warning  to  his  enemies. 

Defiance. 

Cicero's  second  Philippic  concludes  with  a  strain  of  defiance 
which  is  summed  up  in  the  words 

"  Contempsi  Catilinae  gladios,  non  pertimescam  tuos." 

Trust. 

Sheridan  on  Warren  Hastings  terminates  his  speech  with  an 
expression  of  reliance  upon  the  court  and  its  justice. 

Eulogy. 

Burke  concludes  his  speech  on  the  East  India  Bill  with  a 
eulogy  on  Fox,  which  is  strengthened  by  these  words  : 

"An  honorable  friend  of  mine,  speaking  of  his  merits,  was  charged  with 
having  made  a  studied  panegyric.  I  don't  know  what  his  was.  Mine,  I'm 
sure,  is  a  studied  panegyric,  the  fruit  of  much  meditation,  the  result  of  the 
observation  of  nearly  twenty  years." 

Exhortation. 

This  is  common  in  sermons  and  in  addresses  to  the  jury. 

4th.  Description.  The  peroration  frequently  consists  of  some 
kind  of  description. 

Fox  concludes  his  speech  on  Napoleon's  Overtures  by  a  vivid 
description  of  the  horrors  of  war, 

Webster  concludes  his  speech  against  Hayne  by  a  descrip- 
tive passage  anticipative  of  the  horrors  of  civil  war. 

§  406.   THE   DIFFERENT    KINDS   OF   CONCLUSION. 

In  the  next  place,  the  conclusion  is  to  be  considered  with 
reference  to  its  own  character,  and  may  be  analyzed  into  the 
following  classes : 

1.  Those  which  refer  to  success  or  failure. 

This  is  found  in  very  many  works  of  fiction,  whether  in  prose, 
poetry,  or  the  drama.  It  includes  all  those  which  end  at  the 
moment  when  success  has  been  achieved  in  the  accomplish- 
ment of  desire,  or  ruin  has  fallen  in  the  inevitable  catastrophe. 

2.  Where  emphasis  is  laid  upgn  important  propositions.  This 
is  found  in  many  orations,  and  has  been  fully  illustrated.  It 
may  also  include  abrupt  or  startling  denouements  in  works  of 
fiction. 


The  Conclusion.  379 

3.  Retrospective.  This  is  chiefly  found  in  history.  It  in- 
cludes all  which  consist  of  a  summing  up— as  in  oratory;  and 
also  those  conclusions  in  fiction  where  the  characters  are  all 
recalled  for  a  final  appearance  or  final  mention. 

4.  Emotional.  Under  this  class  are  comprehended  many 
perorations,  such  as  those  above  mentioned.  It  is  also  found 
not  unfrequently  in  works  of  fiction,  as  when  a  novel,  written 
to  further  some  cause,  terminates  with  an  appeal  in  favor  of 
such  cause. 

5.  Descriptive.  This  is  found  in  narrative  writing  of  all 
kinds,  and  sometimes  in  oratory,  as  above  illustrated. 

R 


PART  V. 

THE     EMOTIONS. 


CHAPTER   I. 

THE    BEAUTIFUL. 


§  407.  THE    INFLUENCE   OF   THE    EMOTIONS   IN    LITERATURE. 

The  influence  of  the  emotions  is  as  powerful  in  literature  as 
in  life.  Men  are  guided  not  so  much  by  reason  as  by  passions, 
desires,  or  prejudices,  and  it  is  to  these  that  the  writer  makes 
his  most  frequent  and  effective  appeals.  From  these  we  may 
deduce  the  very  origin  of  literature,  which  is  supposed  to  ap- 
pear at  first  as  poetry  in  the  form  of  religious  hymns,  inspired 
by  such  feelings  as  fear,  veneration,  or  affection.  Then  follows 
narrative  poetry,  which  displays  the  emotions  in  full  force,  as 
affecting  the  character  and  acts  of  men.  Thus  the  intention 
of  the  Iliad  is  stated  at  the  outset  to  be  the  wrath  of  Achilles; 
and  that  of  the  Odyssey  is  the  return  of  Ulysses.  In  these 
poems  there  is  the  perpetual  representation  of  human  passion 
suited  to  every  variety  of  character;  the  poet  himself'is  sub- 
ject to  the  power  of  the  very  feelings  which  he  portrays;  the 
hearer  owns  their  sway;  and  both  are  swept  onward  by  one 
common  sympathy.  Oratory  arises  at  an  early  period,  and 
in  its  origin  and  all  its  course  is  largely  connected  with  the 
emotions.  The  speaker  who  should  content  himself  with  mere 
reasoning  would  find  his  argument  as  ineffective  over  a  general 
audience  as  a  mathematical  proposition  ;  it  is  only  when  he 
comes  to  his  hearers  with  a  glowing  heart  that  he  can  properly 
affect  them.     Narrative  in  prose  has  the  same  connection  with 


The  Beautiful.  381 

the  feelings.  In  history  it  is  the  display  of  human  action  in- 
termingled with  human  passion  that  excites  the  reader's  inter- 
est. Herodotus  held  his  audience  spell-bound  at  the  Olympic 
games.  Thucydides  is  unrivalled  for  impartiality ;  but  the  sym- 
pathy of  the  reader,  not  restricted  to  one  side,  turns  with  equal 
intensity  to  each  of  the  contending  parties.  The  modern  his- 
torian has  given  up  the  exclusive  treatment  of  battles  and 
dynasties,  and  has  taken  up  the  wider  theme  of  the  growth  of 
man  ;  but  in  doing  this  the  feelings  are  called  into  play  as 
much  as  ever,  and  the  interest,  instead  of  being  confined  to 
kings  and  heroes,  is  spread  over  the  humbler  classes  who  form 
the  people. 

In  the  emotions  may  be  found  the  true  source  of  most  of  the 
higher  qualities  of  style.  Nearly  all  the  figures' of  speech  are 
associated  with  them  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  Vivacity  in- 
dicates animation.  Energy  implies  strength  of  feeling.  The 
orator  cannot  be  eloquent  whose  own  heart  is  not  stirred.  It 
is  by  the  power  of  the  emotions  that  the  imagination  is  stimu- 
lated, and  is  enabled  to  create  the  brightest  forms  of  the  beau- 
tiful or  the  loftiest  conceptions  of  the  sublime, 

§  408.   CLASSIFICATION    OF   THE    EMOTIONS. 

The  emotions  comprehend  all  those  sensations  and  feelings 
which  are  excited  within  the  mind  by  certain  causes  peculiar 
to  each,  without  the  influence  of  the  will. 

They  include  the  following : 

1.  The  aesthetic  emotions,  or  those  which  are  subordinate  to 
the  taste:  as.  The  beautiful;  the  sublime;  the  ridiculous;  the 
fantastic. 

2.  The  desires.  Love  of  self ;  love  of  life;  love  of  wealth, 
or  avarice;  love  of  knowledge;  love  of  fame;  love  of  power; 
love  of  pre-eminence. 

3.  The  affections.  The  family  affections :  Parental,  frater- 
nal, filial,  conjugal;  friendship;  esteem;  veneration;  gratitude; 
patriotism ;  philanthropy ;  esprit  de  corps.  The  moral  and 
religious  affections. 

4.  The  passions.  These  are  twofold,  involving  attraction 
and  repulsion  :  as,  Love  and  hate ;  desire  and  aversion ;  hap- 
piness and  misery;  hope  and  fear. 

These  interchange  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  draw  the  line  be- 


382  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

tween  desires,  affections,  and  passions ;  but  though  a  different 
classification  might  be  preferable  in  a  philosophical  treatise, 
yet  this  is  the  most  convenient  for  the  purpose  of  considering 
their  relations  to  literature. 

§  409.   LITERARY   iESTHETICS. 

The  term  aesthetics  is  derived  from  attr^rjtrtcy  perception, 
and  is  used  to  designate  the  science  of  the  beautiful.  By 
literary  aesthetics  is  meant  the  examination  of  the  beautiful  in 
literalure. 

§  410.    THE    BEAUTIFUL — THEORIES   WITH    REGARD   TO   IT. 

The  beautiful  has  had  many  definitions,  which  vary  in  ac- 
CQrdance  with  the  theory  held  respecting  it.  The  chief  of  these 
theories  are  as  follows  : 

1.  The  objective.  This  theory  ascribes  the  beautiful  to  cer- 
tain qualities  in  the  external  world  which  affect  the  mind  with 
pleasing  emotions.  Among  the  advocates  of  this  may  be  men- 
tioned Addison,  Hogarth,  Burke,  Voltaire,  D'Alembert,  Mon- 
tesquieu, Reid,  Brown. 

2.  The  subjective.  This  theory  ascribes  the  beautiful  to  the 
action  of  the  mind  itself,  and  to  no  other  cause.  This  is  stated 
by  Hume,  who  says,  "  Beauty  is  no  quality  in  things  themselves ; 
it  exists  merely  in  the  mind  which  contemplates  them,  and  each 
mind  perceives  a  different  beauty."  Among  the  advocates  of 
this  may  be  enumerated  Hume,  Schelling,  Eastlake,  Ruskin, 
Coleridge. 

3.  Objecto-subjective.  This  theory,  as  the  name  implies,  is 
a  compound  of  the  two  preceding.  It  asserts  that  there  is  in 
the  mind  an  ideal  notion  of  the  beautiful,  which  is  awakened  to 
action  by  certain  qualities  in  the  external  world.  Among  the 
supporters  of  this  may  be  named  Akenside,  Reynolds,  Winck- 
elmann,  Diderot,  Cousin. 

4.  Associative.  This  theory  teaches  that  external  things 
have  not  the  beautiful  existing  in  them,  but  that  they  may  pro- 
duce within  us  various  agreeable  emotions,  such  as  love,  joy, 
peace,  cheerfulness,  satisfaction,  and  the  like,  which  result  in 
the  emotion  of  the  beautiful.  This  theory  is  sustained  by  Ali- 
son, Jeffrey,  and  others. 

Various  modifications  of  the  above  theories  are  to  be  found, 


The  Beautiful.  383 

but  all  may  be  classified  without  much  violence  under  one  or 
another  of  them. 

§  411.   DEFINITION    OF    THE    BEAUTIFUL. 

The  definition  of  the  beautiful  which  is  most  commonly  re- 
ceived is  in  substance  as  follows : 

The  beautiful  is  an  emotion  of  pleasure  which  is  awakened 
in  the  mind  by  the  perception  of  certain  qualities  in  external 
things. 

The  beautiful  is  a  compound  emotion,  including  the  absolute 
and  the  relative. 

By  the  absolute  beautiful  is  meant  the  ideal  existing  in  the 
mind. 

By  the  relative,  the  beautiful  which  is  visible  in  external 
things. 

Where  the  ideal  is  worked  out,  so  as  to  become  perceptible 
to  the  senses,  there  results  the  beautiful  in  art  and  in  literature. 

There  is  a  certain  sensibility  of  the  mind  by  which  we  cog- 
nize the  beautiful,  and  this  is  called  taste. 

§  412.  TASTE. 

Taste  is  possessed  by  all  men,  in  all  nations,  races,  and  ages. 
It  is  shown  by  the  savage  in  his  love  of  personal  decoration ; 
by  the  civilized  man  in  his  love  of  art;  and  every  age  of  the 
world  has  left  monuments  which  testify  to  this. 

While  it  is  thus  universal,  it  is,  however,  as  different  among 
men  as  their  faces,  complexions,  characters,  or  languages. 

Races  differ — the  Oriental  from  the  European,  the  savage 
from  the  civilized.  One  loves  what  is  rich  and  profuse  in 
ornament,  the  other  what  is  chaste  and  refined.  The  savage 
loves  gaudy  beads,  and  decorations  of  paint  and  feathers,  while 
the  civilized  man  is  content  with  simpler  attire.  The  universal 
love  of  ornament  shows  the  universal  existence  of  taste,  and 
the  fashions  of  these  show  its  variation. 

The  Frenchman  and  the  Englishman,  the  German  and  the 
Italian,  the  Russian  and  the  Spaniard,  have  manifestations  of 
taste  peculiar  to  each  nation,  different  each  from  the  other. 
Each  nation  again  shows  variations  among  the  different  orders 
of  society;  the  taste  of  the  boor,  the  refined,  the  rustic,  and 
the  noble  being  quite  distinct.     Another  illustration  is  afforded 


384  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

by  each  age  of  life— the  child,  the  youth,  the  middle-aged,  the 
old.  Nowhere  is  this  more  manifest  than  in  literature.  A  man 
can  look  back  and  measure  his  life  by  the  successive  changes 
in  his  taste  for  poetry.  The  same  country  shows  differences  in 
this  respect,  and  the  whole  story  of  a  nation's  career  may  be 
indicated  by  the  changes  that  have  taken  place  in  its  literary 
taste. 

These  varieties  of  taste  might  seem  to  indicate  its  suscepti- 
bilities to  change  and  improvement.  No  quality  is  more  so. 
A  whole  class,  or  even  a  whole  nation,  may  be  brought  to  per- 
ceive the  beautiful  where  they  once  saw  it  not.  While  there 
are  great  differences  of  taste  in  every  nation,  there  are  also 
great  concords;  whole  communities  show  agreement  in  one 
thing;  children  are  trained  to  love  what  their  elders  love.  The 
study  of  the  works  of  the  great  masters  can  elevate  the  taste 
in  painting;  familiarity  with  the  works  of  the  great  composers 
can  elevate  the  taste  in  music;  and  in  every  age  the  mighty 
legacies  of  Attic  genius  have  tended  to  purify,  chasten,  and 
enlighten  the  taste  in  literature. 

§  413.  THE    BEAX7TIFUL    IN   NATURE. 

While  the  nature  of  the  beautiful  may  be  a  matter  of  doubt, 
there  is  less  difficulty  as  to  its  sources.  These  areof  two  gen- 
eral kinds  :  first,  the  beautiful  in  nature  ;  and,  second,  the 
beautiful  in  morals. 

In  the  first  place  we  have  to  consider  natural  beauty. 

Natural  beauty  arises  from  the  following  sources  :  Color, 
form,  motion,  sound,  proportion,  variety,  design. 

§  414.   COLOR. 

I.  The  first  example  of  this  is  seen  in  nature,  where  all  colors 
are  visible,  the  softer  being  spread  over  great  spaces,  the  more 
brilliant  over  smaller  surfaces.  The  fields  and  forests  display 
green;  the  sky  and  water  blue;  the  distant  hills  purple;  gold- 
en, orange,  yellow,  appear  in  the  heavens  at  sunset  and  sun- 
rise; and  endless  variations  of  tints  in  the  flowers  and  in  the 
plumage  of  birds.  Colors  individually  are  beautiful,  but  when 
seen  together,  or  well  harmonized,  the  pleasure  is  far  greater. 
In  a  landscape  all  colors  may  be  seen  at  once — the  sky,  the 
plain,  the  waters  and  forests,  the  birds  and  the  flowers,  all  offer- 


The  Beautiful.  385 

ing  a  delightful  variety.  A  painting  when  compared  with  an 
engraving,  a  landscape  in  autumn  and  the  same  scene  in  win- 
ter, will  exhibit  the  charm  of  coloring.  New  tints  are  continu- 
ally being  devised  by  the  skill  of  man,  and  added  to  the  old 
ones.  The  Tyrian  dye  of  the  ancients  and  the  Magenta  of  our 
own  day  are  examples.  Upon  color  are  based,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, the  decorative  arts  and  the  art  of  painting. 

§  415.   FORM   OR   FIGURE. 

2.  Two  kinds  of  form  may  be  observed;  first,  that  which  is  in- 
dicated by  the  straight  line ;  and,  secondly,  that  which  is  char- 
acterized by  the  curve.  The  former  is  most  visible  in  archi- 
tecture; the  latter  in  sculpture  and  painting.  The  straight 
line  is  seen  in  angles  and  squares,  the  curve  in  circles,  spirals, 
and  waving  lines.  Each  has  its  own  peculiar  beauty,  but  that 
of  the  curve  is  superior,  and  is  everywhere  visible  in  nature 
and  art.  The  straight  line  leads  to  monotony;  the  curve  to 
endless  variety.  This  is  illustrated  in  old-fashioned  gardens, 
especially  in  those  which  were  prevalent  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  where  the  predominance  of  straight  walks  and  beds,  or 
bushes  cut  into  straight -line  forms,  gave  an  air  of  intolerable 
stiffness;  while  in  English  parks  or  landscape  gardening  Nat- 
ure herself  was  imitated  in  wandering  walks  and  irregular  out- 
lines. 

Architecture  necessarily  has  more  to  do  with  straight  lines. 
The  Hindoo  and  Egyptian  had  this  especial  characteristic. 
The  Greek,  though  using  it  to  a  great  extent,  admitted  a  slight 
curve  in  the  outline  of  columns.  The  Roman  made  an  exten- 
sive use  of  the  arch,  which  was  more  fully  developed  in  the 
Byzantine  and  Saracenic.  In  the  Gothic  the  straight  lines  are 
perpetually  broken  up  by  towering  arches,  intricate  tracery,  and 
innumerable  ornaments. 

Hogarth,  in  his  Analysis  of  Beauty,  finds  all  its  elements 
meeting  in  a  curved  line.  He  says  that  beauty  is  constituted 
by  fitness,  simplicity,  uniformity,  variety,  and  a  certain  amount 
of  intricacy ;  and  that  these  all  meet  in  a  certain  waving  line, 
essential  to  all  beautiful  forms,  which  he  calls  the  "  line  of 
beauty." 

Figure  is  the  basis  of  the  arts  of  sculpture,  architecture,  and 
drawing. 


386  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

§  416.    MOTION. 

3.  Much  of  the  beauty  of  nature  arises  from  the  life  and  move- 
ment of  natural  objects — the  rolling  of  waves,  the  flow  of  rivers, 
the  swaying  of  grass  or  trees,  the  flight  of  birds.  Motion  is 
always  in  curved  lines,  and  of  these  the  most  pleasing  is  the 
undulatory  line  of  movement  as  seen  in  waves  or  fields  of  ripen- 
ing grain. 

All  these  beauties  receive  their  highest  example  in  the  hu- 
man countenance.  Color  is  there  in  the  varying  tints  of  com- 
plexion, eyes,  lips,  hair;  figure  is  exhibited  in  the  exquisite  out- 
line— the  oval  of  the  face,  the  curves  of  nostril  or  eye,  the  bow 
shape  of  the  lips ;  while  motion  is  seen  in  the  play  of  the  feat- 
ures. The  portrayal  of  the  human  face  affords  opportunity  for 
displaying  the  highest  genius  of  the  artist;  and  if  motion  is  not 
given,  there  is  at  least  the  suggestion  of  it  in  the  subtle  ex- 
pression which  may  be  caught  and  retained. 

§  417.    SOUND. 

4.  Nature  reveals  to  us  the  beauty  of  sound  in  the  babble  of 
brooks,  the  murmur  of  rivers,  the  roll  of  the  surf,  the  sighing  of 
the  wind,  the  rustle  of  leaves,  the  song  of  birds,  the  hum  of 
universal  life.  Above  all,  the  human  voice  is  most  delight- 
ful, and  may  have  in  it  more  of  the  beautiful  than  any  other 
sound. 

Upon  sound  is  based  the  art  of  music.  From  this  also  arise 
all  those  beauties  of  literature  that  belong  to  rhetorical  har- 
mony— the  euphonious  flow  of  verse,  the  rhythm  of  noble  prose, 
the  infinite  glorifes  of  poetry. 

§  418.    PROPORTION. 

5.  The  emotion  of  the  beautiful  is  felt  at  the  perception  of  the 
proportion  of  different  parts  to  a  whole.  This  is  very  manifest 
in  sculpture  and  architecture.  The  Greeks  excelled  in  this; 
and  when  art  declined  in  the  Roman  days,  that  decline  was 
first  manifest  in  neglect  of  the  laws  of  proportion.  It  is  this 
that  may  make  the  whole  difference  between  a  beautiful  statue 
and  an  ugly  one.  A  Roman  temple  shows  no  such  exquisite 
grace  of  proportion  as  an  Athenian,  while  a  modern  imitation 
fails  more  lamentably. 


The  Beautiful.  387 

This  perfect  proportion  is  called  symmetry,  and  was  the  lead- 
ing characteristic  of  Grecian  art. 

§  419.    VARIETY. 

6.  In  the  productions  of  nature  the  classes  are  the  same,  but 
the  individuals  are  different.  They  are  alike,  yet  unlike,  being 
similar  as  to  genus,  but  different  as  to  species.  Men  are  alike 
as  men,  but  different  as  individuals.  No  two  faces  are  alike. 
In  art  the  same  thing  is  visible.  Edifices  are  built  in  a  given 
style,  and  so  far  are  alike,  yet  individually  they  differ.  Perpet- 
ual sameness  leads  to  monotony;  variety,  however,  is  pleasing, 
and  when  arising  out  of  uniformity  it  is  beautiful.  This  sort 
of  variety  may  be  termed  the  picturesque. 

§  420.    DESIGN. 

7.  The  beautiful  may  be  seen  in  the  adaptation  of  means  to 
an  end — design  and  execution.  In  nature  this  may  arise  from 
the  contemplation  of  a  tree,  with  its  leaves,  root,  bark;  the 
planets,  with  their  movements;  among  the  works  of  man  there 
is  a  certain  kind  of  beauty  in  the  mechanism  of  a  watch  or 
steam-engine,  in  the  construction  of  a  ship  or  of  a  balloon. 
It  may  also  be  found  in  mathematical  demonstration,  or  in 
well-conceived  argument. 

§  421.  THE    BEAUTIFUL    IN    MORALS. 

In  the  second  place  we  have  to  consider  moral  beauty. 

This  includes  the  beautiful  in  sentiment,  words,  and  actions; 
and  consists  generally  of  the  display  of  the  milder  qualities  and 
virtues. 

The  milder  qualities  are,  for  example,  joy,  happiness,  meek- 
ness, gracefulness,  chastity,  purity,  refinement,  peace,  truth; 
the  gentler  virtues  —  love,  gentleness,  goodness,  forbearance, 
temperance,  and  the  like.  These  may  be  seen  exhibited  in 
thought,  word,  and  action ;  and  may  be  found  penetrating  the 
works  of  art  and  literature,  giving  a  hidden  meaning  and  a 
subtle  beauty. 

Among  the  Greeks  this  term,  the  Beautiful,  to  KaXoy,  was  used 
to  indicate  something  of  broader  significance  than  is  common 
with  us.  It  represented  the  high  ideal  of  human  good  in  char- 
acter, action,  and  attainment.     We  possess  a  still  higher  term 

R  2 


388  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

gained  from  Christianity,  namely,  "  holiness ;"  and  the  beautiful 
takes  with  us  a  narrower  ground.  But  with  the  Greek  to  koKov 
was  the  highest  good,  the  summum  boniim;  and  when  added 
to  another  word,  the  result  was  a  term  which  became  elevated 
to  the  highest — ro  kuXov  KixyaQdv — the  perfect  good,  and  per- 
fect fair,  the  highest  object  of  human  desire  and  aspiration.  It 
is  in  this  sense  that  the  beautiful  is  accepted  by  Keats,  whose 
soul  was  enkindled  with  its  charms,  whose  poetry  was  thus  in- 
spired, and  who  taught  this  in  his  ode  to  a  Grecian  Urn,  whea 
he  said : 

"  Beauty  is  Truth,  Truth  Beauty— that  is  all 

Ye  know  on  earth,  and  all  ye  need  to  know." 

§  422.    THE   BEAUTIFUL    IN    LITERATURE. 

Literature  has  already  been  shown  to  be  under  certain  as- 
pects a  branch  of  art,  and  this  conception  of  it  has  given  rise 
to  the  term  belles-lettres.  In  poetry  this  artistic  character  is 
pre-eminent.     Now  the  end  of  all  art  is  the  beautiful. 

By  art  is  meant  the  effort  to  bring  into  sensible  form  the 
ideal  that  is  in  the  mind,  and  this  ideal  is  the  absolute  beau- 
tiful. 

This  effort  is  perceptible  in  architecture,  sculpture,  painting, 
and  music,  where  the  artist  works  by  means  of  form,  color,  or 
tone.  The  poet  works  by  means  of  language ;  his  field  is  far 
wider,  his  meaning  more  direct,  and  his  expression  more  clear 
and  profound. 

This  subject  will  be  found  illustrated  in  the  following  pas- 
sages. 

The  beauty  of  these  lines  of  Shakespeare  consists  in  the  ex- 
quisite grace  of  the  conception  : 

"  Nothing  of  him  that  doth  fade 
But  doth  suffer  a  sea-change 
Into  something  rich  and  strange." 

No  passage  in  Shakespeare's  works  has  a  higher  and  more 
radiant  beauty  than  this  : 

"  How  sweet  the  moonlight  sleeps  upon  this  bank  ! 
Here  will  we  sit,  and  let  the  sounds  of  music 
Creep  in  our  ears  :  soft  stillness  and  the  night 
Become  the  touches  of  sweet  harmony. 


The  Beautiful.  389 

Sit,  Jessica.    Look  Iiow  the  floor  of  heaven 
Is  thick  inlaid  with  patines  of  bright  gold  : 
There's  not  the  smallest  orb  which  thou  behold'st 
But  in  his  motion  like  an  angel  sings, 
Still  quiring  to  the  young-eyed  cherubims ; 
Such  harmony  is  in  immortal  souls." 

The  following  lines  from  Milton's  Comus  possess  a  beauty 
of  a  similar  nature  : 

"  Can  any  mortal  mixture  of  earth's  mould 
Breathe  such  divine  enchanting  ravishment? 
Sure  something  holy  lodges  in  that  breast, 
And  with  these  raptures  moves  the  vocal  air 
To  testify  his  hidden  residence. 
How  sweetly  did  they  float  upon  the  wings 
Of  silence,  through  the  empty-vaulted  night, 
At  every  fall  smoothing  the  raven  down 
Of  darkness  till  it  smiled." 

Rogers's  poem,  "  A  Wish,"  expresses  a  soft  and  gentle  re- 
pose: 

"  Mine  be  a  cot  beside  a  hill ; 

A  beehive's  hum  shall  soothe  my  ear; 
A  willowy  bryok,  that  turns  a  mill. 
With  many  a  fall,  shall  linger  near." 

It  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  Marlowe's  poem,  "The 
Passionate  Shepherd  to  his  Love,"  by  which  it  was  probably 
suggested : 

"  Come,  live  with  me,  and  be  my  love, 
And  we  will  all  the  pleasures  prove 
That  hills  and  valleys,  dale  and  field, 
Woods  or  steepy  mountains,  yield." 

The  following  lines  from  Byron  are  not  in  his  usual  vein,  but 
have  so  much  tender  and  delicate  grace  that  they  might  have 
been  written  by  Shelley  : 

"  There  be  none  of  Beauty's  daughters 

With  a  magic  like  thee ; 
And  like  music  on  the  .waters 

Is  thy  sweet  voice  to  me; 
When,  as  if  its  sound  were  causing 
The  charmed  ocean's  pausing. 
The  waves  lie  still  and  gleaming, 
And  the  lull'd  winds  seem  dreaming." 


390  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Shelley  is  pre-eminently  the  poet  of  the  beautiful.  The  ode 
on  the  Skylark  is  penetrated  through  and  through  with  this 
spirit,  and  has  more  of  high  and  pure  poetic  rapture  than  any 
other  in  existence. 

To  the  Moon  : 

"Art  thou  pale  for  weariness 

Of  climbing  heaven,  and  gazing  upon  earth, 
Wandering  companionless 

Among  the  stars,  that  have  a  different  birth; 
And  ever  changing,  like  a  joyless  eye 
That  finds  no  object  worth  its  constancy  V 

The  same  exquisite  grace  of  conception  and  execution  may 
be  found  in  the  following  lines  from  a  poem  written  on  the 
Euganean  Hills : 

"  With  folding  wings  they  waiting  sit 
For  my  bark,  to  pilot  it 
To  some  calm  and  blooming  cove. 
Where  for  me  and  those  I  love 

May  a  windless  bower  be  built,  ! 

Free  from  passion,  pain,  and  guilt. 
In  a  dell  'mid  lawny  hills, 
Which  the  wild  sea-muynur  fills. 
And  soft  sunshine,  and  the  sound 
Of  old  forests  echoing  round  ; 
And  the  light  and  smell  divine 
Of  all  flowers  that  breathe  and  shine." 

The  following  possesses  all  of  Shelley's  characteristic  grace 
and  delicacy : 

"Music,  when  soft  voices  die. 
Vibrates  in  the  memory — 
Odors,  when  sweet  violets  sicken. 
Live  within  the  sense  they  quickeiL 

"  Rose  leaves,  when  the  rose  is  dead, 
Are  heap'd  for  the  beloved's  bed. 
And  so  thy  thoughts,  when  thou  art  gone, 
Love  itself  shall  slumber  on." 

Keats  rivals  Shelley  in  his  deep  love  of  the  beautiful,  as  also 
in  his  rare  and  delicate  conception  and  expression.  His  ode 
to  a  Nightingale  is  in  his  best  manner,  and  may  be  compared 
to  Shelley's  Skylark,  which  it  resembles  in  general  conception. 
The  manner  of  the  two  is,  however,  widely  different ;  Shelley's 


The  Beautiful.  391 

ode  being  full  of  ecstatic  joy,  and  that  of  Keats  evincing  sad- 
ness and  gloom : 

"  Thou  wast  not  born  for  death,  immortal  bird  ! 
No  hungry  generations  tread  thee  down ; 
The  voice  I  hear  this  passing  night  was  heard 

In  ancient  days  by  emperor  and  clown. 
Perhaps  the  self-same  song  that  found  a  path 
Through  the  sad  heart  of  Ruth,  when,  sick  for  home, 
She  stood  in  tears  amid  the  alien  corn ; 
The  same  that  ofttimes  hath 
Charmed  magic  casements,  opening  on  the  foam 
Of  perilous  seas,  in  faery  lands  forlorn." 

From  Hyperion : 

"As  when  upon  a  tranced  summer  night 
Those  green-robed  senators  of  mighty  woods, 
Tall  oaks,  branch-charmed  by  the  earnest  stars. 
Dream,  and  so  dream  all  night  without  a  stir. 
Save  from  one  gradual  solitary  gust 
Which  comes  upon  the  silence,  and  dies  oflf 
As  if  the  ebbing  air  had  but  one  wave." 


§  423.   DIFFERENCE    BETWEEN    THE    ANCIENT   AND   MODERN 
IDEA    OF    THE    BEAUTIFUL. 

There  is  a  difference  between  the  ancient  and  modern  idea 
of  the  beautiful  which  is  observable  in  art  and  literature. 

The  Greek  idea  of  the  beautiful  was  closely  associated  with 
the  principle  of  order,  proportion,  fitness,  and  design.  In  archi- 
tecture it  received  its  exponent  in  the  Greek  temple,  the  most 
perfect  type  of  proportion  that  can  be  adduced.  The  leading 
idea  of  Greek  architecture  is  above  all  things  symmetry.  The 
same  thing  may  be  found  in  their  matchless  sculpture,  which 
modern  art  may  imitate,  but  never  rival;  and  it  is  also  man- 
ifest, so  far  as  the  few  remains  will  allow  of  a  judgment,  in 
Greek  painting.  It  is  impossible  to  say  how  far  the  ancients 
may  have  carried  this  art,  but  from  the  remains  that  have  been 
handed  down  we  can  perceive  the  same  love  of  perfection  in 
form  and  symmetry.  The  specimens  that  survive  on  vases  and 
Pompeian  walls  show  that  the  ancient  artist  loved  to  portray  a 
temple,  a  vase,  a  nymph  gracefully  poised  on  nothing,  the 
form  of  gods  or  heroes  grandly  idealized — everywhere  a  love 


392  Elemefits  of  Rhetoric. 

of  order,  proportion,  elegance,  and  a  determination  to  depict 
superhuman  beauty. 

Turning  to  literature  we  perceive  the  san  e  tendency.  The 
beautiful  which  inspires  the  writer  is  the  same  which  inspires 
the  artist.  It  is  the  beauty  of  order,  law,  proportion— in  short, 
symmetry.  The  lyric  poets,  with  all  their  varied  metres,  were 
bound  to  a  rigid  law  in  each  metre.  The  epic  poets  followed 
rules  deduced  from  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  which  poems, 
though  originally  written  in  the  free  ardor  of  genius,  served  as 
the  source  of  laws  that  were  to  bind  the  poets  of  future  ages. 
But  it  is  in  the  drama  that  this  principle  is  most  clearly  seen. 
This  department  of  literature  had  grown  up  around  the  lyric 
poetry  of  the  Chorus.  This  Chorus  had  its  own  part  in  every 
performance,  they  were  virtually  actors,  and  always  remained 
visible  to  the  spectators.  According  to  the  Greek  conception, 
while  the  Chorus  remained  it  was  impossible  to  allow  of  any 
violent  change  of  scene,  or  any  great  lapse  of  time.  Hence 
the  drama  followed  what  was  afterwards  called  the  law  of  the 
three  unities. 

The  three  unities  are  the  following : 

First,  the  unity  of  action  ;  which  means  that  the  business  of 
a  piece  be  connected  with  one  leading  subject,  and  that  the 
interest  be  not  dispersed  among  several. 

Secondly,  the  unity  of  place;  which  means  that  the  action 
must  be  confined  to  the  one  place  in  which  it  begins. 

Thirdly,  the  unity  of  time ;  which  means  that  the  action  be 
limited  in  duration  to  a  period  not  very  much  greater  than  the 
time  actually  taken  up  in  representing  it  on  the  stage. 

Here,  then,  in  the  Greek  drama  may  be  seen  the  same  pre- 
dominance of  that  idea  of  symmetr}'  which  prevailed  in  Greek 
art. 

In  the  period  of  the  revival  of  letters  the  classical  influence 
was  strong  both  in  art  and  literature.  In  the  one  it  led  to  that 
epoch  known  as  the  Renaissance;  in  the  other  it  led  to  the 
attempt  at  the  revival  of  the  laws  of  the  three  unities,  and  an 
extension  throughout  literature  generally  of  the  Greek  princi- 
ple of  symmetry  and  subordination  to  law.  The  style  that 
resulted,  both  in  the  drama  and  in  other  departments  of  letters, 
is  known  as  the  classical. 

The  modern  idea  of  the  beautiful  differs  from  this. 


The  Beautiful.  393 

We  may  see  it,  in  the  first  place,  in  art.  In  sculpture,  which 
depends  entirely  upon  symmetry,  there  is  no  comparison  be- 
tween modern  works  and  those  of  the  Greeks.  But  in  the 
other  departments  of  art  it  is  different.  In  architecture  the 
modern  world  finds  its  chief  glory  in  the  Gothic  cathedral, 
which  is  the  best  representative  of  the  sum  total  of  the  differ- 
ence between  the  modern  and  ancient  idea  of  the  beautiful. 
Here,  though  there  is  a  dominant  law  to  which  all  is  subor- 
dinate, yet  that  law  is  hidden  by  the  grandeur  of  the  result. 
The  character  of  the  edifice  is  infinite,  all-embracing,  rejecting 
nothing  that  can  heighten  the  general  effect.  The  Greek  tem- 
ple is  white,  pure,  clean,  symmetrical ;  the  Gothic  cathedral  is 
dark,  tempest-worn,  perhaps  overgrown  in  part  with  moss  or  ivy, 
a  mountain-mass  of  stone,  whose  proportions,  though  exquisite, 
do  not  readily  strike  the  eye.  In  this  glorious  yet  apparently 
disordered  mass  of  building  and  carving  everything  is  assem- 
bled ;  statues  are  there — stiff,  rigid,  rather  architecture  than 
sculpture,  yet  lost  in  the  effect  of  the  whole ;  saints,  angels, 
devils,  all  are  there;  the  beautiful,  the  sublime,  the  horrible, 
even  the  grotesque.  Here  the  dominant  idea  is  not.  the  sym- 
metrical, but  something  broader ;  illimitable  variety  bound  to- 
gether by  a  real  uniformity,  which  may  most  fittingly  be  termed 
the  picturesque. 

It  is  the  same  in  modern  painting,  which  is  characterized  bj 
the  same  tendency,  from  the  Transfiguration  of  Raffaelle  to 
the  Beggar  Boys  of  Murillo ;  from  the  Last  Judgment  of 
Michael  Angelo  to  the  Blind  Fiddler  of  Wilkie.  It  is  not  the 
pure,  cold,  clear  elegance  of  the  Greek.  It  is  something  wider, 
more  comprehensive,  embracing  everything  in  its  scope,  and 
shunning  nothing;  seeking  and  finding  the  beautiful  in  forms 
and  guises  where  the  Greek  would  never  have  suspected  it  or 
understood  it — not  in  the  floating  nymph,  the  forms  of  deities 
or  heroes,  the  fair,  white  temple,  or  other  highly  idealized  sub- 
jects, but  in  the  tumble-down  bridge,  the  rustic  cottage,  the 
old  mill.  Painting  now  seeks  after  variety.  It  has  been  said 
"to  revel  in  dirt."     Its  beauty  is  the  picturesque. 

If  now  we  turn  to  literature  the  parallel  will  be  complete. 

Law  exists;  it  compels  uniformity ,^but  this  uniformity  has  an 

^  endless  variety.^   The  ballad  or  the  metrical  romance  was  the 

earliest  production  of  modern  literature,  and  this  earliest  pro- 


394  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

duction  was  characterized  by  illimitable  freedom  in  subject 
and  in  treatment.  This  word  "  romance,"  which  first  indicated 
the  languages  derived  from  the  Roman,  /.^.,  Latin,  was  after- 
wards applied  to  the  works  of  the  imagination  which  arose  in 
the  "Romance"  languages;  and  from  this  usage  the  term  "ro- 
mantic "  was  derived,  to  denote  that  freedom  from  the  restraint 
of  the  classical  school  which  marked  this  new  literature.  These 
two  principles  have  been  the  great  rivals  in  modern  letters; 
they  have  formed  parties,  which  have  divided  epochs  and  na- 
tions, under  the  names  of  the  classical  and  romantic  schools. 

Dante,  the  father  of  modern  poetr}',  followed  this  new  im- 
pulse. He  imitated  no  classical  model;  he  was  a  law  unto 
himself;  and  in  his  sublime  poetry  he  struck  the  key-note  of 
modern  literature.  Chaucer,  unlike  him  in  everything  else, 
resembled  him  in  this,  that  he  followed  no  classical  model, 
but  wrote  from  himself  for  the  men  of  his  generation,  and  be- 
came the  father  of  his  national  poetry.  Spenser  pursued  the 
same  course;  and  Shakespeare  came  next  to  show  that  the 
modern  world  had  surpassed  the  ancient,  and  that  in  himself 
and  Dante  Homer  and  Sophocles  had  been  outdone.  Hence- 
forth there  were  other  lawgivers  and  other  models  than  those 
of  Greece,  and  the  modern  literature  might  take  its  stand,  not  on 
the  old  law  of  restriction,  but  on  the  new  law  of  liberty.  Dante 
and  Shakespeare  are  thus  the  great  names  of  the  romantic 
school.  Wherever  this  school  and  its  spirit  has  prevailed, 
there  literature  is  greatest.  In  the  ages  of  English  literature 
the  spirit  of  each  has  been  in  the  ascendency;  and  the  classical 
spirit  dominated  in  our  Augustan  age,  the  age  of  Anne;  but 
this  Augustan  age  is  inferior  to  the  Elizabethan,  as  the  poetry 
of  France  is  inferior  to  that  of  England ;  Corneille  and  Racine 
to  Shakespeare  and  Goethe ;  or  Voltaire's  Henriade  to  Milton's 
Paradise  Lost 


The  Sublime.  395 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE  SUBLIMK 
§  424.   THE   SUBLIME. 

The  sublime  is  closely  connected  with  the  beautiful.  It  is 
apprehended  by  the  same  sensibility — the  taste.  The  theory 
of  its  origin  is  the  same.  It  differs  from  it  not  in  kind,  but  in 
degree,  as  the  lofty  mountain  from  the  gentle  hill;  the  light 
flame  from  a  great  conflagration ;  or  the  love  of  a  mother  for  a 
child  from  the  love  of  the  same  mother  risking  her  life  or  lay- 
ing it  down  for  the  sake  of  her  offspring.  Thus  the  one  may 
change  insensibly  into  the  other,  as  the  rippling  stream  grows 
into  the  majestic  river,  or  the  gentle  breeze  into  the  tremendous 
hurricane. 

The  emotion  of  the  sublime  is  an  internal  elevation  of  mind 
produced  by  wonder,  awe,  or  terror. 

The  sublime  may  be  considered,  first,  in  nature;  secondly, 
in  morals ;  and  the  sources  of  this  emotion  may  be  considered 
under  the  head  of  each. 

§   425.  THE   SUBLIME    IN    NATURE — THE   VAST  AND    BOUNDLESS. 

In  the  first  place  we  have  to  consider  the  sources  of  the 
sublime  in  nature. 

The  chief  of  these  may  be  found  in  the  vast  and  boundless, 
and  may  refer  to  space,  duration,  power,  or  sound. 

In  space  the  sublime  arises  from  the  contemplation  of  height, 
as  a  lofty  cliff  or  high  mountain,  the  firmament  of  heaven  ;  from 
depth,  as  a  deep  abyss,  the  crater  of  a  volcano;  from  extent, 
as  a  great  plain,  the  expanse  of  ocean.  Finally,  when  all  bounds- 
are  removed,  there  arises  the  sublime  idea  of  infinitude. 

In  duration  the  sublime  may  arise  from  the  thought  of  the 
lapse  of  centuries  in  human  history,  the  passage  of  time  in  the 
geological  ages,  or  the  inconceivable  progress  of  astronomical 
cycles.     Here,  too,  as  with  space,  if  all  bounds  be  removed, 


39^  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

the  result  is  the  sublime  idea  of  the  infinite  in  duration,  which 
is  eternity. 

The  exhibition  of  vast  power  has  the  same  effect  upon  the 
mind.  It  may  be  human  power,  as  that  of  a  great  king  or  a 
great  conqueror.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  the  power  of 
a  great  legislator  or  benefactor.  It  may  be  the  power  of  nature, 
as  exhibited  in  the  rolling  waters  of  the  ocean,  the  progress  of 
a  mighty  conflagration,  the  might  of  an  earthquake,  or  the  fury 
of  a  storm. 

In  sound,  vastness  may  suggest  the  idea  of  power,  as  in  the 
roar  of  cataracts,  the  peal  of  thunder,  or  the  volleying  of  a 
cannonade;  but  there  is  also  the  sublime  in  sound  which  has 
no  such  accessory  notion,  as  the  toll  of  a  midnight  bell,  or  the 
knocking  at  the  gates  in  Macbeth. 

§  426.   AWE. 

The  sublime  is  also  produced  by  the  sensation  of  awe. 

Religious  awe  and  veneration  is  a  fruitful  source,  and  may 
be  illustrated  by  many  passages  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  espe- 
cially the  visions  of  Isaiah,  Ezekiel,  and  in  the  Apocalypse. 
The  sublime  effect  of  the  interior  of  a  Gothic  cathedral  affords 
a  familiar  example. 

Silence  is  another  cause.  "  There  was  silence  in  heaven  for 
the  space  of  half  an  hour,"  is  the  sublime  language  of  the  Apoc- 
alypse, which  thus  introduces  an  abrupt  cessation  to  the  tre- 
mendous movement  of  the  vision.  "  Be  still,  and  know  that  I 
am  God,"  says  the  Psalmist. 

The  same  thing  may  be  seen  in  Campbell's  ode : 

"  There  was  silence  still  as  death, 
And  the  boldest  held  his  breath 
For  a  time." 

Darkness  produces  the  same  effect,  whether  it  be  encounter- 
ed by  night,  or  in  a  gloomy  gorge,  or  in  the  recesses  of  moun- 
tains or  caverns.  *' O  night !"  exclaims  Byron,  "and  storm 
and  darkness,  ye  are  wondrous  strong.'*  The  representations 
of  the  Deity  have  additional  sublimity  when  this  is  added. 
"Clouds  and  darkness,"  says  the  Psalmist,  "are  round  about 
him."     This  has  been  repeated  by  Milton,  who  says  : 

"  How  oft  amid 
Thick  clouds  and  dark  does  heaven's  all-ruling  Sire 
Choose  to  reside." 


The  Sublime.  397 

To  these  must  be  added  the  supernatural.  Here  awe  is 
associated  with  terror,  and  the  human  mind  shrinks  back  from 
its  own  fancies.  Many  of  the  most  subHme  passages  in  litera- 
ture have  this  as  their  basis,  and  among  them  may  be  men- 
tioned as  pre-eminent  the  iiltaXov  of  Darius  in  the  Persae,  the 
ghost  of  Hamlet's  father,  and  the  apparition  of  Banquo. 

§  427.   THE    MORAL    SUBLIME. 

In  the  second  place  we  have  to  consider  the  moral  sublime. 
This  is  the  sublime  as  displayed  in  sentiments,  words,  or  ac- 
tions; and  may  be  said  to  arise  from  anything  in  these  that 
transcends  ordinary  human  capacity. 

Sublimity  is  recognized  in  those  actions  or  sufferings  which 
exhibit  the  heroic  virtues.  History  and  literature  are  full  of 
such  instances,  which,  whether  authentic  or  imagined,  are 
known  to  all,  and  have  become  the  subjects  of  perpetual  ref- 
erence. 

The  display  of  extraordinary  courage  has  this  effect,  as  when 
Satan,  in  Paradise  Lost,  offers  to  go  first  in  search  of  the  world 
of  man  : 

••  Who  shall  tempt  with  wandering  feet 
The  dark,  unfathomed,  infinite  abyss  ?" 

Connected  with  this  is  an  indomitable  will,  an  invincible 
spirit  which  is  seen  most  strikingly  in  the  same  character,  who, 
though  delivered  over  to  infinite  wrath  and  infinite  despair, 
disdains  submission. 

Where  a  conflict  is  carried  on  against  great  odds  the  effect  is 
still  grander.  It  is  this  that  gives  such  magic  influence  to  the 
names  of  Marathon  and  Morgarten ;  Salamis  and  Sempach; 
to  the  story  of  Horatius  and  his  two  friends  keeping  the  bridge 
against  an  army;  or  the  conquest  of  Mexico  by  a  handful  of 
Spaniards.  Devotion  and  self-sacrifice  carry  us  even  beyond 
this,  as  in  the  case  of  Scaevola  or  Curtius  or  Constantine  Palae- 
ologus.  The  virtues  of  fidelity  and  endurance  are  akin  to 
these,  and  inspire  Regulus  in  Roman  legend  and  Prometheus 
in  Greek  poetry ;  while  even  these  are  surpassed  in  Christian 
story  by  the  sublime  constancy  of  martyr,  virgin,  and  confessor. 
There  is  sublimity  also  in  pride,  as  in  the  case  of  Cleopatra, 
who  died  rather  than  submit  to  humiliation;  and  in  ambition, 
as  in  the  case  of  Napoleon. 


398  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  sublime  may  be  seen  in  words  as  well  as  in  actions. 
The  sayings  of  great  men  which  have  been  handed  down  in 
history  are  generally  of  this  description.  Many  are  attributed 
to  the  heroes  of  classical  story,  and  these  have  their  counter- 
part in  the  words  of  the  men  of  later  times.  Of  such  a  char- 
acter are  the  words  of  Hildebrand,  who,  dying  at  Salerno 
after  a  long  and  bitter  struggle,  said,  "  I  have  loved  righteous- 
ness and  hated  iniquity,  and  therefore  I  die  in  exile ;"  or 
those  of  Luther  on  entering  Worms,  to  confront  a  hostile 
world,  "  Though  there  were  as  many  devils  in  Worms  as  tiles 
on  the  house-tops,  still  I  would  enter;"  or  of  Francis  I.,  after 
the  battle  of  Pavia,  "  I  have  lost  all  but  honor ;"  or  of  Sir  Wal- 
ter Raleigh,  as  he  felt  the  edge  of  the  axe  before  laying  his 
head  on  the  block,  "  It  is  a  sharp  remedy,  but  will  cure  all  dis- 
eases ;"  of  Sir  Philip  Sydney,  as  he  motioned  away  the  water 
to  the  dying  soldier,  "Thy  necessity  is  greater  than  mine;"  or 
of  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  going  down  at  sea,  "  Never  mind,  we 
are  as  near  heaven  at  sea  as  ashore ;"  of  Nelson,  "  England 
expects  every  man  to  do  his  duty ;"  of  Napoleon,  "  Soldiers, 
from  the  summit  of  yonder  pyramids  forty  centuries  look  down 
upon  you."  These  and  many  more  are  but  the  verbal  expres- 
sion of  the  same  lofty  virtues  which  constitute  the  sublime  in 
action.  They  show  unflinching  courage,  invincible  resolution, 
faith  stronger  than  death,  the  victory  over  self,  the  sacrifice  of 
life  itself,  or  lofty  resignation  when  that  life  is  demanded  by 
necessity. 

§  428.  THE   SUBLIME    IN    LITERATURE. 

We  have  next  to  consider  the  sublime  in  writing. 

The  treatise  of  Longinus  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the 
ancient  rhetorical  writings,  and  also  one  of  the  best  upon  the 
sublime.  Although  his  view  of  the  subject  is  wider  than  would 
at  present  be  allowed,  yet  many  of  his  remarks  are  most  just 
and  important : 

*'  The  sublime,''  says  Longinus,  "  is  a  certain  excellence  and  perfection 
of  language,  and  the  greatest  writers,  both  in  prose  and  poetry,  have  by  this 
alone  obtained  the  prize  of  glory  and  clothed  their  renown  with  immortal- 
ity. The  sublime  not  only  persuades,  but  transports  an  audience.  By  its 
astounding  effects  it  is  always  more  powerful  than  that  which  merely  per- 
suades or  delights  ;  for  in  most  cases  it  rests  wholly  with  ourselves  either 
to  resist  or  to  yield  to  persuasion.     But  the  sublime,  by  the  application  of 


The  Sublime.  399 

sovereign  power  and  irresistible  might,  gets  the  ascendency  over  every 
hearer ;  .  .  .  when  uttered  in  due  season  it  scatters  all  before  it  in  an  instant 
with  the  lightning's  force,  and  shows  at  once  the  might  of  genius  in  a 
single  stroke.  .  .  .  The  soul  is  naturally  elevated  by  the  true  sublime,  and, 
lifted  up  with  exultation,  is  filled  with  transport  and  inward  pride,  as  if  what 
was  only  heard  had  been  the  product  of  its  own  invention." 

Another  definition  of  the  sublime  is  by  the  French  critic, 
Boileau  : 

"  The  sublime  is  a  certain  force  in  discourse  proper  to  elevate  and  trans- 
port the  soul,  which  proceeds  either  from  grandeur  of  thought  and  noble- 
ness of  sentiment,  or  from  magnificence  of  words,  or  an  harmonious,  ani- 
mated, and  lively  turn  of  expression — that  is  to  say,  from  any  one  of  these 
particulars  regarded  separately ;  or,  which  makes  the  perfect  sublime,  from 
these  three  particulars  joined  together." 

§  429.    FIVE   SOURCES   OF   THE   SUBLIME   ACCORDING   TO 
LONGINUS. 

Longinus  lays  down  five  sources  of  the  sublime  in  writing : 

1.  A  felicitous  boldness  in  the  thoughts. 

2.  A  capacity  of  intense  and  enthusiastic  passion. 

These  two  constituents  of  the  sublime  are,  for  the  most  part, 
the  gift  of  nature,  whereas  the  remaining  three  depend  also 
upon  art. 

3.  A  skilful  moulding  of  figures. 

4.  A  noble  and  graceful  manner  of  expression,  which  is  not 
only  to  select  significant  and  elegant  words,  but  also  to  adorn 
the  style,  and  embellish  it  with  the  assistance  of  tropes. 

5.  The  construction  of  the  periods  with  all  possible  dignity 
and  grandeur. 

Of  the  examples  given  by  Longinus,  there  are  some  which 
would  not  be  considered  appropriate ;  while  others  are  of  the 
highest  excellence.  The  best  are  the  following  :  From  Homer, 
the  description  of  Rumor;  the  progress  of  Neptune;  the  nod 
of  Jove;  the  interposition  of  the  gods  in  the  fight;  the  prayer 
of  Ajax  for  light;  from  Demosthenes,  the  celebrated  oath  by 
those  who  died  at.  Marathon;  from  the  Bible,  the  creation 
of  light. 

§  430.    ILLUSTRATIONS    OF   THE    SUBLIME. 

Nowhere  can  such  a  number  of  sublime  passages  be  found 
as  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures.     The  fervid  and  intense  feeling 


4CX)  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

of  the  writers,  the  subjects  upon  which  they  wrote,  the  circum- 
stances under  which  they  were  written,  formed  a  combination 
of  causes  which  has  never  elsewhere  existed.  The  descrip- 
tions of  the  Deity  are  always  of  overwhelming  splendor  and 
sublimit}' : 

"  He  stood,  and  measured  the  earth ; 
He  beheld,  and  drove  asunder  the  nations ; 
The  everlasting  hills  were  scattered. 
The  perpetual  hills  did  bow. 
The  mountains  saw  thee,  and  they  trembled ; 
The  overflowing  of  the  waters  passed  by ; 
The  deep  uttered  his  voice,  and  lifted  up  his  hands  on  high." 

— Habbakuk. 

The  Trisagion,  or  Song  of  the  Seraphim,  in  Isaiah,  is  another 
example ;  and  another  of  equal  grandeur  is  to  be  found  in  the 
passage  of  the  Apocalypse  beginning,  *'  And  I  saw  a  great 
white  throne."  Other  passages,  though  less  ecstatic,  have  equal 
majesty.  The  90th  Psalm  is  one  of  these.  Another  is  the 
words  of  the  Saviour — "  I  am  the  Resurrection  and  the  Life." 

In  the  services  of  the  Christian  Church  there  are  numerous 
cases  in  which  the  sublime  spirit  of  the  Bible  has  been  caught 
and  illustrated  afresh,  especially  in  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis  and 
the  Te  Deum.  These,  which  were  the  earliest  hymns  of  the 
Church,  have  been  succeeded  by  thousands  of  others,  among 
which  the  most  sublime  is  the  Dies  Irae. 

The  Bible  has  acted  with  direct  influence  upon  two  great 
English  poets,  whose  works  are  full  of  noble  passages.  These 
are  Caedmon  and  Milton.  The  Anglo-Saxon  poet  Caedmon 
wrote  a  paraphrase  of  Scripture,  and  thus  expressed  in  his  own 
language  the  thoughts  of  the  great  original.  Some  of  these 
are  not  unworthy  of  that  name  which  he  bears,  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Milton : 

"Nought  here  as  yet  save  cavern  gloom 
Had  been,  but  this  wide  abyss 
Stood  deep  and  dim,  strange  to  the  Lord, 
Idle  and  useless.     On  this  with  his  eyes  looked 
The  firm-souled  King,  and  beheld  the  regions 
Void  of  joys — saw  dark  clouds 

Lower  with  perpetual  night,  gloomy  under  the  skies, 
Wan  and  waste,  until  this  world's  creation 
Arose  thiou-h  the  word  of  the  King  of  glory." 


The  Sublime,  401 

Of  Milton,  De  Quincey  says  that  he  is  not  a  poet  among 
poets,  but  a  power  among  powers ;  and  that  he  alone  exhibits 
the  sublime  not  fitfully  and  at  intervals,  but  in  a  sustained  and 
unintermittent  manner.  The  subject  of  Paradise  Lost  is  of  it- 
self of  this  description.  The  characters  are  God,  angels,  dev- 
ils, and  new-made  man.  The  scenes  are  heaven,  hell,  and 
paradise.  The  angelic  beings  are  created  by  the  poet's  own 
invention ;  even  their  language  has  to  be  created,  and  the  dia- 
lect which  they  speak  has  a  grand  cadence  of  the  true  Miltonic 
character.  The  first,  second,  and  third  books  contain  a  sus- 
tained flight  into  the  loftiest  regions  of  imagination,  where  all 
is  sublime,  and  where  it  is  difficult  to  select  any  one  example 
in  preference  to  any  other  : 

"  Him  the  Almighty  Power 
Hurled  headlong  flaming  from  the  ethereal  sky, 
With  hideous  ruin  and  combustion,  down 
To  bottomless  perdition,  there  to  dwell 
In  adamantine  chains  and  penal  fire, 
Who  durst  defy  the  Omnipotent  to  arms." 

"  The  thunder, 
Winged  with  red  lightning  and  impetuous  rage, 
Perhaps  hath  spent  his  shafts,  and  ceases  now 
To  bellow  through  the  vast  and  boundless  deep." 

"  To  be  no  more  :  sad  cure.     For  who  would  lose, 
Though  full  of  pain,  this  intellectual  being, 
Those  thoughts  that  wander  through  eternity, 
To  perish  rather,  swallowed  up  and  lost 
In  the, wide  womb  of  uncreated  night, 
Devoid  of  sense  and  motion  ?" 

"Black  it  stood  as  night. 
Fierce  as  ten  furies,  terrible  as  hell. 
And  shook  a  dreadful  dart :  what  seemed  his  head 
The  likeness  of  a  kingly  crown  had  on." 

"  Hail,  holy  light !  offspring  of  heaven  first-bom, 
Or  of  the  Eternal  co-eternal  beam." 

"  Lowly  reverent 
Towards  either  throne  they  bow,  and  to  the  ground. 
With  solemn  adoration,  down  they  cast 
Their  crowns  inwove  with  amarant  and  gold. 
Immortal  amarant,  a  flower  which  once 
In  Paradise,  fast  by  the  Tree  of  Life, 


402  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Began  to  bloom ;  but  soon  for  man's  offence 

To  heaven  removed,  where  first  it  grew,  there  grows 

And  flowers  aloft  shading  the  Tree  of  Life  ; 

And  where  the  River  of  Bliss  through  midst  of  heaven 

Rolls  o'er  Elysian  flowers  her  amber  stream, 

With  these,  that  never  fade,  the  spirits  elect 

Bind  their  resplendent  locks  inwreathed  with  gems." 

"  Thee,  Father,  first  they  sung.  Omnipotent, 
Immutable,  Immortal,  Infinite, 
Eternal  King;  the  Author  of  all  being; 
Fountain  of  light,  Thyself  invisible 
Amid  the  glorious  brightness  where  Thou  sittest, 
Throned  inaccessible ;  but  when  Thou  shadest 
The  full  blaze  of  Thy  beams,  and  through  a  cloud 
Drawn  round  about  Thee  like  a  radiant  shrine. 
Dark  with  excessive  bright  Thy  skirts  appear." 

Among  other  English  poets  examples  abound.  Gray,  in  the 
following,  seems  to  have  caught  Milton's  own  inspiration  : 

"  Nor  second  he  that  rode  sublime 
Upon  the  seraph  wings  of  Ecstasy, 
The  secrets  of  the  abyss  to  spy. 

He  passed  the  flaming  bounds  of  space  and  time : 
The  living  throne,  the  sapphire  blaze, 
Where  angels  tremble  while  they  gaze. 
He  saw  ;  but,  blasted  with  excess  of  light, 
Closed  his  eyes  in  endless  night." 

Byron  affords  more  passages  of  this  lofty  and  thrilling  kind 
than  any  other  poet  since  Milton.  His  impetuous  and  vehe- 
ment spirit  is  always  ready  to  rise  to  the  level  of  the  highest 
themes,  and  the  vigor  of  his  language  never  fails.  His  Thun- 
der-storm on  Jura,  Battle  of  Waterloo,  and  Address  to  the  Ocean 
may  be  cited  as  examples. 

Wordsworth  is  too  philosophical  and  contemplative  to  ex- 
hibit much  of  so  fervid  a  quality ;  but,  in  spite  of  this,  in  his 
Ode  on  Immortality  he  has  risen  to  a  height  of  grandeur  at- 
tainable but  by  few. 

Campbell's  vigorous  muse  frequently  rises  to  the  sublime, 
and  perhaps  attains  its  highest  power  in  Hohenlinden. 

Great  sublimity  of  conception  and  expression  is  exhibited 
by  Shelley  in  the  first  canto  of  the  Revolt  of  Islam,  and  in  the 
Prometheus  Unbound.  Mrs.  Browning's  Seraphim,  and  Drama 
of  Exile,  which  are  due  to  the  influence  of  Shelley's  poetry, 


The  Sublime.  403 

though  often  overwrought  and  strained,  nevertheless  rise  to 
very  lofty  heights  of  thought. 

The  following  lines  exhibit  the  power  of  Keats  to  attain  to 
the  utmost  grandeur  of  conception  : 

"Oft  of  one  wide  expanse  had  I  been  told 
That  deep-biovved  Homer  ruled  as  his  demesne; 
Yet  never  did  I  breathe  its  pure  serene, 
Till  I  heard  Chapman  speak  out  loud  and  bold. 
Then  felt  I  like  some  watcher  of  the  skies, 
When  a  new  planet  swims  into  his  ken. 
Or  like  stout  Cortez — when  with  eagle  eyes 
He  stared  at  the  Pacific,  and  all  his  men 
Looked  at  each  other  with  a  wild  surmise — 
Silent  upon  a  peak  in  Darien." 

§  431.    DIFFERENCE    BETWEEN    THE    SUBLIME   AND    BEAUTIFUL. 

The  difference  between  the  sublime  and  the  beautiful  is  seen 
in  Milton,  and  is  described  and  illustrated  in  Tennyson's  ode: 

"  O  mighty-mouthed  inventor  of  harmonies, 
O  skilled  to  sing  of  Time  or  Eternity, 
God-gifted  organ-voice  of  England, 
Milton,  a  name  to  resound  for  ages ; 
Whose  Titan  angels,  Gabriel,  Abdiel, 
Starr'd  from  Jehovah's  gorgeous  armories, 
Tower,  as  the  deep-domed  empyrean 
Rings  to  the  roar  of  an  angel  onset — 
Me  rather  all  that  bowery  loneliness, 
The  brooks  of  Eden  mazily  murmuring, 
And  bloom  profuse  and  cedar  arches 
Charm,  as  a  wanderer  out  in  ocean. 
Where  some  refulcjent  sunset  of  India 
Streams  o'er  a  rich  ambrosial  ocean  isle. 
And  crimson-hued  the  stately  palm-woods 
Whisper  in  odorous  heights  of  even." 

The  sublime  is  intense,  and  therefore  short-lived,  and  often 
but  momentary.  The  beautiful  is  prolonged,  and  may  be  per- 
petual.    As  Shakespeare  says  in  Antony  and  Cleopatra  : 

"Age  cannot  wither  her,  nor  custom  stale 
Her  infinite  variety." 

Or  in  the  words  of  Keats's  Endymion  : 

"  A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever ; 
Its  loveliness  increases ;  it  will  never 
Pass  into  nothingness." 

s 


404  Elements  of  EJietoric, 


CHAPTER  III. 

THE  RIDICULOUS. 

§  432.    THE   RIDICULOUS. 

The  ridiculous  has  reference  to  those  things  which  conduce 
to  niirthfulness,  laughter,  or  derision.  The  term  "ludicrous" 
is  often  used  as  interchangeable  with  it. 

There  are  some  who  distinguish  between  the  two,  associat- 
ing the  former  with  contempt,  and  the  latter  with  mirthfulness ; 
but  this  is  a  distinction  which  cannot  be  insisted  on,  and  the 
term  ridiculous  may  be  considered  as  the  more  comprehensive 
of  the  two. 

The  source  of  the  ridiculous  lies  in  the  perception  of  incon- 
gruity. The  laws  of  mind  and  experience  lead  us  to  anticipate 
a  regular  order  in  ideas  or  in  events,  such  as  the  logical  se- 
quence of  cause  and  effect,  antecedent  and  consequent;  the 
proper  classification  of  genus  and  species ;  the  subordination 
of  a  part  to  the  whole,  the  less  to  the  greater,  and  the  like. 
By  incongruity  is  meant  the  violation  of  this  order,  and  the 
effect  of  this  is  to  excite  within  the  mind  a  sense  of  the  ludi- 
crous.    This  is  illustrated  in  the  following  cases. 

1.  Cause  and  effect.  Where  there  is  a  great  parade  of  prep- 
aration without  any  result  whatever:  as — 

•'  The  king  of  France,  with  twice  ten  thousand  men, 
Marched  up  the  hill — and  then  marched  down  again.'* 

2.  Antecedent  and  consequent.  Where  there  is  an  inconse- 
quential statement,  that  is,  where  one  statement  follows  an- 
other without  any  connection  between  them :  as — 

"To  whom  the  knight,  with  comely  grace, 
Put  off  his  hat,  to  put  his  case." 

"  His  head  was  turned,  and  so  he  chewed 
His  pigtail  till  he  died." 


The  Ridiculous.  405 

3.  Classification.  Where  discordant  things  are  jumbled  to- 
gether: as— 

•'  Not  louder  shrieks  to  pitying  heaven  are  cast, 
When  husbands  or  when  lapdogs  breathe  their  last." 

4.  Comparison.  Where  the  resemblance  is  affirmed  between 
two  totally  incongruous  objects,  which,  however,  are  said  to 
have  one  thing  in  common  :  as  — 

"Like  a  lobster  boiled  the  morn, 
From  black  to  red  began  to  turn." 

5.  Contrast.  Where  an  unexpected  and  violent  contrast  is 
presented : 

•'  I  really  take  it  very  kind, 
This  visit,  Mrs.  Skinner. 
I  have  not  seen  you  such  an  age — 
Aside.  (The  wretch  has  come  to  dinner)." 

The  sense  of  the  ridiculous  is  as  widely  diffused  as  the  sense 
of  the  beautiful,  and  differs  according  to  the  taste  in  the  same 
way.  The  clown  enjoys  coarse  jokes,  while  the  man  of  culture 
can  only  appreciate  refined  wit,  and  is  disgusted  by  that  which 
is  amusing  to  the  other,  while  to  the  other  the  light  and  grace- 
ful raillery  of  the  educated  man  seems  unintelligible. 

§  433.    WIT. 

The  chief  elements  of  the  ridiculous  are  two,  namely,  wit 
and  humor. 

I.  Wit. 

Wit  is  a  certain  quickness  of  fancy,  by  which  ideas,  seemingly 
incongruous,  are  associated  in  a  pointed  and  amusing  manner. 

It  may  also  be  defined  as  a  sudden  association  of  incongru- 
ous things,  expressed  in  brief  and  striking  language. 

In  wit  there  are  three  requisites : 

ist.  Pointed  expression,  such  as  antithesis,  which  is  often 
used ;  or  any  other  form  which  may  serve  this  purpose. 

2d.  Brevity.     "Brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit." 

3d.  The  association  of  incongruities :  as — 

"  The  general  is  a  great  taker  of  snufT  as  well  as  of  towns." 

"  Beneath  this  stone  my  wife  doth  lie ; 
She's  now  at  rest — and  so  am  I." 


4o6  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Sydney  Smith's  wish  "  to  take  off  his  flesh  and  sit  in  his 
bones"  is  a  well-known  example. 

Wit  is  associated  with  pointed  language.  It  makes  use  of 
artificial  forms  of  expression,  which  are  sometimes  classed 
among  the  figures  of  speech.  Antithesis  is  very  largely  em- 
ployed for  purposes  of  this  kind ;  and  there  are  other  figures 
which  are  used  exclusively  in  this  wa)*,  such  as  paronomasia, 
and  all  plays  on  words.  Wit  is  employed  in  the  following: 
The  bon-mot,  the  double-entendre,  epigram,. innuendo,  irony, 
lampoon,  pasquinade,  repartee,  sarcasm,  sneer. 

Wit  is  elaborately  defined  by  Dr.  Isaac  Barrow : 

"  It  is  a  thing  so  versatile  and  multiform,  appearing  in  so  many  shapes, 
so  many  postures,  so  many  garbs,  so  variously  apprehended  by  several  eyes 
and  judgments,  that  it  seemeth  no  less  hard  to  settle  a  clear  and  certain 
notion  thereof  than  to  make  a  portrait  of  Proteus,  or  to  define  the  figure  of 
the  fleeting  air.  Sometimes  it  lieth  in  pat  allusion  to  a  known  story,  or  in 
seasonable  application  of  a  trivial  saying,  or  in  forging  an  apposite  tale ; 
sometimes  it  playeth  on  words  and  phrases,  taking  advantage  from  the  am- 
biguity of  their  sense  or  the  affinity  of  their  sound.  Sometimes  it  is  wrapped 
in  a  dress  of  humorous  expression  ;  sometimes  it  lurketh  under  an  odd  si- 
militude ;  sometimes  it  is  lodged  in  a  sly  question,  in  a  smart  answer,  in  a 
quirkish  reason,  in  a  shrewd  intimation,  in  cunningly  diverting  or  cleverly 
retorting  an  objection  ;  sometimes  it  is  couched  in  a  bold  scheme  of  speech, 
in  a  tart  irony,  in  a  lusty  hyperbole,  in  a  startling  metaphor,  in  a  plausible 
reconciling  of  contradictions,  or  in  acute  nonsense  ;  sometimes  a  scenical 
representation  of  persons  or  things,  a  counterfeit  s|)eech,  a  mimical  look  or 
gesture  passeth  for  it  ;  sometimes  an  affected  simplicity,  sometimes  a  pre- 
sumptuous bluntness  giveth  it  being ;  sometimes  it  riseth  only  upon  a  lucky 
hitting  upon  what  is  strange  ;  sometimes  from  a  crafty  twisting  obvious 
matter  to  the  purpose  ;  often  it  consists  in  one  knows  not  what,  and  spring- 
eth  up  one  can  hardly  tell  how.  Its  ways  are  unaccountable  and  inexpli- 
cable, being  answerable  to  the  numberless  rovings  of  fancy  and  windings  of 
language.  It  is,  in  short,  a  manner  of  sf)eaking  out  of  the  simple  and  plain 
way — such  as  reason  teacheth  and  proveth  things  by — which  by  a  pretty  sur- 
prising uncouthness  in  conceit  or  expression  doth  affect  and  amuse  the  fancy, 
stirring  in  it  some  wonder,  and  breeding  some  delight  thereto." 


§  434.    HUMOR. 

Humor  may  be  defined  as  the  quality  of  fancy  which  gives 
to  things  a  ridiculous  turn  and  evokes  mirthfulness. 

Humor  is  more  prolonged  in  duration  than  wit,  which  is  fit- 
ful, short-lived,  and  associated  with  brevity  and  point  of  ex- 
pression, and  great  artificiality  in  the  structure  of  sentences. 


The  Ridiculotis,  407 

In  humor  the  sense  of  the  ridiculous  is  maintained  at  greater 
length,  and  it  is  a  general  element  pervading  a  whole  compo- 
sition. 

In  the  following  passage,  De  Quincey  distinguishes  between 
wit  and  humor : 

"  While  wit  is  a  purely  intellectual  thing,  into  every  act  of  the  humorous 
mind  there  is  an  influx  of  the  fnonil  nature  :  rays,  direct  or  refracted,  from 
the  will  and  the  affections,  from  the  disposition  and  the  temperament,  enter 
into  all  humor  ;  and  thence  it  is  that  humor  is  of  a  diffusive  quality,  pervad- 
ing an  entire  course  of  thoughts ;  while  wit — because  it  has  no  existence  apart 
from  certain  logical  relations  of  a  thought  which  are  definitely  assignable, 
and  can  be  counted  even — is  always  punctually  concentrated  within  the 
circle  of  a  few  words." 

The  general  characteristics  of  humor  are  illustrated  in  the 
following  passages. 

The  first  is  from  Charles  Lamb's  Dissertation  on  Roast  Pig : 

*'  The  judge,  who  was  a  shrewd  fellow,  winked  at  the  manifest  iniquity  of 
the  decision  ;  and  when  the  court  was  dismissed,  went  privily,  and  bought  up 
all  the  pigs  that  could  be  had  for  love  or  money.  In  a  few  days  his  lord- 
ship's town-house  was  observed  to  be  on  fire.  The  thing  took  wing,  and 
now  there  was  nothing  to  be  seen  but  fire  in  every  direction.  Fuel  and  pigs 
grew  enormously  dear  all  over  the  district.  The  insurance-offices  one  and 
all  shut  up  shop.  People  built  slighter  and  slighter  every  day,  until  it  was 
feared  that  the  very  science  of  architecture  would  in  no  long  time  be  lost  to 
the  world.  Thus  this  custom  of  firing  houses  continued,  till,  in  process  of 
time,  says  my  manuscript,  a  sage  arose,  like  our  Locke,  who  made  a  dis- 
covery that  the  flesh  of  swine,  or  indeed  of  any  other  animal,  might  be  cook- 
ed (burned,  as  they  called  it)  without  the  necessity  of  consuming  a  whole 
house  to  dress  it.  Then  first  began  the  rude  form  of  a  gridiron.  Roasting 
by  the  string  or  spit  came  in  a  century  or  two  later ;  I  forget  in  whose  dy- 
nasty. By  such  slow  degrees,  concludes  the  manuscript,  do  the  most  use- 
ful and  seemingly  the  most  obvious  arts  make  their  way  among  mankind." 

The  next  is  from  the  same  writer's  "  Letter  to  B.  F.,  at  Syd- 
ney, New  South  Wales."  The  humor  is  based  upon  the  fact 
that  at  that  time  this  was  a  penal  colony : 

"  I  cannot  imagine  to  myself  whereabout  you  are.  When  I  try  to  fix  it, 
Peter  Wilkins's  island  comes  across  me.  Sometimes  you  seem  to  be  in  the 
Hades  of  Thieves.  I  see  Diogenes  prying  about  among  you  with  his  perpet- 
ual, fruitless  lantern.  What  must  you  be  willing  to  give  by  this  time  for  the 
sight  of  an  honest  man.  You  must  almost  have  forgotten  how  we  look. 
And  tell  me  what  you  Sydneyites  do  ?  Are  they  th  .  .  v  .  ng  all  day  long  .-* 
Merciful  heaven !  what  property  can  stand  against  such  depredation !  .  .  . 


4o8  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

We  hear  the  most  improbable  tales  at  this  distance.  Pray,  is  it  true  that 
the  young  Spartans  among  you  are  born  with  six  fingers,  which  spoils  their 
scanning  ?  It  must  look  very  odd,  but  use  reconciles.  For  their  scansion 
it  is  less  to  be  regretted,  for  if  they  take  it  into  their  heads  to  be  poets,  it  is 
odds  but  they  turn  out,  the  greater  part  of  them,  vile  plagiarists.  Is  there 
much  difference  to  see,  too,  between  the  son  of  a  th  .  .  f  and  the  grandson, 
or  where  does  the  taint  stop  ?  Do  you  bleach  in  three  or  in  four  genera- 
tions } .  .  .  Do  you  grow  your  own  hemp?  What  is  your  staple  trade,  ex- 
clusive of  the  national  profession,  I  mean  }  Your  locksmiths,  I  take  it,  are 
some  of  your  great  capitalists." 


§  435-    WJT   AND    HUMOR    IN    ENGLISH    LITERATURE. 

It  has  often  been  remarked  that  the  French  are  more  given 
to  wit,  and  the  English  to  humor.  This  is  due  in  part  to  na- 
tional characteristics,  but  it  is  also  due  to  the  difference  between 
the  French  and  English  languages.  The  former  has  greater 
precision  and  nicety  of  expression  than  the  latter,  and  a  larger 
supply  of  the  very  qualities  which  best  serve  the  purpose  of 
wit.  Thus  the  whole  genius  of  the  people  and  of  the  language 
turns  to  delicacy  and  subtlety  of  expression,  antithetic  point, 
and  sparkling  epigram. 

English  literature  is,  however,  sufficiently  rich  in  examples 
of  wit,  and  writers  equal  to  the  very  best  of  the  French  have 
flourished  in  every  age,  from  Lord  Bacon  to  Matthew  Arnold. 
Not  a  few  of  the  English  wits  have  enlarged  their  vocabulary 
and  sharpened  their  epigrammatic  point  by  a  close  study  of 
French  models.  It  was  the  prevailing  French  taste  that  may 
be  said  to  have  influenced  the  greatest  of  all  English  wits — 
Alexander  Pope. 

Humor,  however,  is  rather  peculiar  to  the  English  genius. 
No  other  nation  has  so  entirely  appropriated  it,  nor  can  any 
other  show  such  a  body  of  humorous  literature  which  is  so 
truly  great.  Indeed,  the  very  word  "humor"  can  scarcely  be 
translated.  It  is,  as  has  been  shown,  more  prolonged  and 
sustained  than  wit;  it  is  associated  with  simplicity,  naivete, 
even  homeliness  of  expression ;  and  is  adapted  to  the  plain, 
straightforward,  and  unpretending  nature  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
race  and  speech.  With  these  it  also  blends  kindliness,  genial- 
ity, and  sympathy. 

In  character  it  differs  altogether  from  wit.  For  wit  is  keen 
and  pitiless,  but  humor  is  mild  and  gentle ;  wit  is  for  enemies, 


The  Ridiculous.  409 

humor  for  friends ;  the  one  is  an  ally  to  mockery,  sarcasm,  and 
malignity;  the  other  is  closely  associated  with  pathos,  and  the 
laughter  that  it  awakens  is  often  near  akin  to  tears. 

Wit  in  English  literature  has  been  illustrated  by  such  names 
as  Lord  Bacon,  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  Jeremy  Taylor,  Dryden, 
Pope,  Butler,  Sheridan,  Jerrold,  Sydney  Smith,  Matthew  Arnold. 

Humor  by  Chaucer,  Shakespeare,  who  also  exhibits  wit  in 
equal  measure,  Addison,  Steele,  Swift,  Goldsmith,  Sterne,  Field- 
ing, Thackeray,  Dickens. 

Humor  has  also  been  exhibited  in  art  by  Hogarth,  Cruik- 
shank,  Leech,  Tenniel,  Du  Maurier. 

Among  the  peoples  who  form  the  great  English-speaking 
race  there  is  a  difference  to  be  observed  in  regard  to  the  liter- 
ature of  the  ridiculous.  The  English  proper,  though  exhibit- 
ing a  sufficient  amount  of  wit,  leans  rather  to  humor,  the  char- 
acteristics of  which  are  drollery,  sly  suggestiveness,  delicate 
insinuations,  and  often  something  that  is  not  far  removed  from 
pathos.  Scottish  humor  is  at  once  dry  and  sly.  Aytoun's 
Fairshon  affords  a  good  example : 

"Fairshon  swore  a  feud 

Against  ta  clan  Mac  Tafish, 
Marched  into  his  lands 

Ta  plunder  an  ta  rafish ; 
For  he  did  resolve 

Ta  extirpate  ta  vipers, 
With  four  an  twenty  men. 

An  fife  an  thirty  pipers." 

The  Irish  are  characterized  by  wit,  quick  repartee,  and  keen 
insight.  Their  humor  exhibits  broad  fun  and  joyousness,  as 
suggested  in  the  works  of  Lover  and  Lever.  One  kind  of  hu- 
mor is  peculiar  to  them,  and  is  known  as  the  Irish  Bull.  An 
example  of  this  may  be  found  in  the  following  : 

"  Ladies  and  gentlemen,"  said  an  Irish  manager  to  his  audience  of  three, 
"as  there  is  nobody  here,  I'll  dismiss  you  all ;  the  performance  of  this  night 
will  not  be  performed,  but  will  be  repeated  to-morrow  evening." 

American  humor  is  characterized  by  extravagance,  and  is 
illustrated  by  the  works  of  Artemus  Ward  and  others  who  have 
a  world-wide  popularity. 


4IO  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

§  436.    THE    RIDICULOUS    IN    LITERATURE. 

This  may  be  considered  under  two  divisions : 

1.  Where  the  ridiculous  appears  as  used  for  itself  only,  and 
without  any  ulterior  purpose,  but  wholly  for  the  sake  of  excit- 
ing laughter  or  affording  amusement.  Here  the  ridiculous  it- 
self is  the  end  proposed. 

2.  Where  the  ridiculous  is  used  with  a  purpose. 

By  a  purpose  is  meant  some  aim  beyond  mere  laughter  or 
mirthfulness,  to  attain  which  the  ridiculous  is  made  use  of. 
Here  it  is  used  as  a  means,  not  as  an  end. 

§  437.    THE    RIDICULOUS   WITHOUT  A    PURPOSE. 

I.  The  ridiculous  without  a  purpose  comprehends  all  that  is 
generally  understood  under  the  term  burlesque,  which  may  be 
classified  as  follows  : 

I  St.  Poetry.  To  this  class  belongs  the  poetr}"  known  as 
mock  heroic.  Although  this  is  sometimes  satirical,  as  the 
Rape  of  the  Lock,  yet  it  is  in  its  origin  merely  burlesque.  Its 
popularity  in  ancient  times  is  attested  by  the  Batrachomyo- 
machia,  falsely  assigned  to  Homer.  Modern  burlesque  poetry 
includes  the  Ingoldsby  Legends,  Thackeray's  ballads,  Bon  Gual- 
tier's  poems. 

2d.  Prose.  Lover's  Handy  Andy  and  Thackeray's  O'Ga- 
hagan  are  among  the  best  examples  of  prose  burlesque.  These 
books  afford  perfect  representations  of  the  ridiculous,  pure 
and  simple ;  the  atmosphere  is  one  of  broad  fun,  and  the 
object  for  which  they  were  written  is  simply  the  excitement 
of  laughter. 

3d.  Dramatic.  Under  this  head  are  included  the  farce,  the 
comic  melodrama,  Christmas  pieces,  and  extravaganzas,  such 
as  Aladdin  the  Wonderful  Scamp,  etc. 

4th.  Social.  This  comprises  all  those  modes  of  the  bur- 
lesque which  are  included  in  literature,  and  belong  to  social  life 
— such  as  jests,  enigmas,  conundrums,  drolleries,  humorous  an- 
ecdotes, and  the  like. 

The  burlesque  has  its  own  uses,  which  are  not  unimportant. 
It  tends  to  promote  cheerfulness.  To  those  who  are  engaged 
in  severe  intellectual  pursuits  it  affords  an  agreeable  and  bene- 
ficial reaction.     Physically  it  is  as  valuable  as  bodily  exercise. 


The  Ridiculous.  411 

A  hearty  laugh  is  equal  to  a  long  walk,  and  it  acts  with  ad- 
ditional benefit  upon  the  mind  by  throwing  it  into  another 

groove : 

*'  A  little  nonsense  now  :(nd  then 
Is  relished  by  the  wisest  men." 

Mirthfulness  revives  the  spirit,  and  enables  one  to  undertake 
in  a  fresher  mood  the  serious  business  of  life.  From  this  it  will 
be  seen  that  the  humblest  form  of  burlesque  need  not  be  ex- 
cluded from  a  survey  of  literature,  since  it  has  a  legitimate  use. 

§  438.    THE    RIDICULOUS    WITH   A    PURPOSE. 

2.  The  purpose  for  which  the  ridiculous  is  made  use  of  is 
exclusively  satirical. 

Satirical  writing  includes  all  kinds  of  composition  in  which 
men  and  things  are  made  the  subjects  of  contemptuous  or 
sportive  ridicule.  These  are  numerous,  and  will  be  considered 
in  order. 

§  439.    THE    EPIGRAM. 

The  word  epigram  has  the  same  literal  meaning  as  inscrip- 
tion. Originating  among  the  Greeks,  it  was  at  first  devoted  to 
that  purpose,  but  afterwards  grew  to  have  a  more  extended  ap- 
plication. At  the  present  day  it  is  most  frequently  associated 
with  wit  and  satire,  though  it  may  also  have  a  serious  and  ele- 
vated, or  even  religious  character. 

The  modern  epigram  is  at  once  defined  and  illustrated  in 
the  following  lines  : 

"Omne  epigramma  sit  instar  apis,  sit  aculeus  illi, 
Sint  sua  mella,  sit  et  corporis  exigui." 

"An  epigram  is,  like  a  bee, 
A  lively  little  thing ; 
Its  body  small,  its  honey  sweet, 
And  in  its  tail  a  sting." 

Many  ancient  epigrams  are  apophthegms  : 

"Please  your  own  taste.     In  passion  or  from  pique, 
Some  good  of  you,  and  some  will  evil  speak." — Theognis. 

"  From  vain  rash  speech  thy  tongue  let  silence  hold. 
A  watch  o'er  words  is  better  than  o'er  gold." — Lucian. 
S  2 


412  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Some  express  a  sentiment  or  aspiration  : 

•'  Praying  or  prayerless,  give  us  good  things,  Zeus ! 
And,  e'en  though  prayed  for,  evil  things  refuse." — Plato. 

Some  are  eulogistic : 

"  Heliodorus'  voice,  by  all  that's  dear. 
Is  sweeter  than  Apollo's  lute  to  hear." — MELEA.GEIL 

Some  are  pathetic : 

"When  Arria  to  her  Paetus  gave  the  steel 

Which  from  her  bleeding  side  did  newly  part. 
For  my  own  wound,  she  said,  no  pain  I  feel, 
And  yet  thy  wound  will  stab  me  to  the  heart" — Martiau 

On  Dido : 

"  Poor  queen,  twice  doomed  disastrous  love  to  try. 
You  fly  the  dying,  for  the  flying  die." — AusoNius. 

Among  the  ancient  epigrams,  however,  there  may  be  found 
every  degree  of  satire,  from  the  lightest  raillery  to  the  fiercest 
abuse.     The  following  are  distinctively  satirical : 

"The  dying  miser  wept,  not  life  to  end. 
But  on  his  funeral  so  much  to  spend." — Nicarchus. 

"Ten  pounds  I  begged,  with  half  thou  bidd'st  me  speed; 
Next  time  I'll  ask  thee  twice  what  I  have  need." — Martial. 

"You  ask  me  why  I  have  no  verses  sent, — 
For  fear  you  should  return  the  compliment." — Martial. 

"A  doctor  lately  was  a  captain  made; 
It  is  a  change  of  title,  not  of  trade." — Martiau 

"Thou  art  so  tame  and  simple  in  thy  life, 
I  wonder  how  thou  e'er  couldst  court  a  wife." — Martial. 

"The  golden  hair  that  Galla  wears 

Is  hers,  who  would  have  thought  it ! 
She  swears  'tis  hers,  and  true  she  swears, 
For  I  know  where  she  bought  it." — Martial. 

"'Tis  said  that  certain  death  awaits 
The  raven's  nightly  cry; 
But  at  the  sound  of  Cymon's  voice 
The  very  ravens  die." — Nicarchus. 

"A  viper  stung  a  Cappadocian's  hide, 
And  poisoned  by  his  blood  that  instant  died." 

— Demodocus. 


The  Ridiculous.  413 

Modern  epigrams  are  chiefly  of  a  satirical  character. 
The  following  well-known  epigram  on  Wolsey  is  remarkable 
for  its  alliteration  : 

"  Begot  by  butcher,  but  by  bishop  bred, 
How  high  his  highness  holds  his  haughty  head !" — Heywood. 

On  Pope's  translation  of  Homer : 

"  Pope  came  off  clean  with  Homer ;  but  they  say 
Broome  went  before  and  kindly  swept  the  way." — Henly. 

A  repartee  at  the  expense  of  the  clergy: 

"Said  Celia  to  a  reverend  dean, 
'  What  reason  can  be  given. 
Since  marriage  is  a  holy  thing, 
That  they  have  none  in  heaven?' 

*  They  have,'  says  he,  *  no  women  there.* 

She  quick  returns  the  jest, 

*  Women  there  are,  but  I'm  afraid 

They  cannot  find  a  priest' "— SwiFT. 

A  Jacobite  epigram : 

"  God  bless  the  King !    God  bless  the  faith's  defender, 
The  devil  take  the  Pope  and  the  Pretender, 
Who  the  Pretender  is  and  who  the  King — 
God  bless  us  all !  is  quite  another  thing." — Dr.  Byrom. 

Unexpected  kindness: 

"  '  O  spare  me,  dear  angel,  one  lock  of  your  hair,* 
A  bashful  young  lover  took  courage  and  sighed. 
'  'Twere  a  sin  to  refuse  you  so  modest  a  prayer, 
So  take  my  whole  wig,'  the  sweet  creature  replied." 

On  the  setting-up  Butler's  monument  in  Westminster  Abbey: 

"  Whilst  Butler,  needy  wretch,  was  yet  alive, 
No  generous  patron  would  a  dinner  give ; 
See  him,  when  starved  to  death  and  turned  to  dust, 
Presented  with  a  monumental  bust. 
The  poet's  fate  is  here  in  emblem  shown — 
He  asked  for  bread,  and  he  received  a  stone." — S.  Wesley: 

" '  Harry,  I  cannot  think,'  says  Dick, 

*  What  makes  my  ankles  grow  so  thick.* 
*You  do  not  recollect,'  says  Harry, 

*  How  great  a  calf  they  have  to  carry.'  " 


414  Elements  of  R/ietoric. 

Advice  to  a  dramatist  : 

"  Your  comedy  I've  read,  my  friend. 
And  like  the  half  you  pilfered  best; 
But  sure  the  drama  you  might  mend — 
Take  courage,  man,  and  steal  the  rest.*' 

On  a  parson  who  had  lost  his  portmanteau: 

"Tve  lost  my  portmanteau.' 
'I  pity  your  grief 
•All  my  sermons  were  in  it' 
'  I  pity  the  thief  " 

Written  on  a  looking-glass : 

**I  change,  and  so  do  women,  too; 
But  I  reflect,  which  women  never  do." 

On  hearing  a  debate  in  the  House  of  Commons: 

"To  wonder,  now,  at  Balaam's  ass  were  weak; 
Is  there  a  night  that  asses  do  not  speak?" 

On  a  bankrupt  lately  turned  preacher : 

"No  more  by  creditors  perplexed. 
Or  ruined  tradesmen's  angry  din; 
He  boldly  preaches  from  the  text, 
'  A  stranger,  and  I  took  him  in.' " 

A  French  epigram   addressed  to  Monsieur  M on  his 

nomination  to  the  Legion  of  Honor: 

"In  ancient  times — 'twas  no  great  loss — 
They  hung  a  thief  upon  the  cross; 
But  now,  alas  !  I  say  't  with  grief, 
They  hang  the  cross  upon  the  thiefc" 

On  Prince  Talleyrand : 

"  Seven  cities  boasted  Homer's  birth,  'tis  true ; 
But  twenty  boast  of  not  producing  you." 

Modern  epigrams  are  not  always  satirical,  and  many  of  the 
most  beautiful  are  full  of  elevated  sentiment. 
A  literary  epigram  : 

"Three  poets,  in  three  distant  ages  born, 
Greece,  Italy,  and  England  did  adorn; 
The  first  in  loftiness  of  thought  surpassea, 
The  next  in  majesty,  in  both  the  last. 
The  force  of  Nature  could  no  farther  go; 
To  make  a  third  she  joined  the  former  two." — Dryden. 


The  Ridiculous.  415 

A  religious  epigram.  Dr.  Doddridge  on  his  family  motto, 
"  Dum  vivimus  vivamus :" 

"Live  while  you  live,  the  epicure  would  say, 
And  seize  the  pleasures  of  the  present  day; 
Live  while  you  live,  the  sacred  preacher  cries, 
And  give  to  God  each  moment  as  it  flies. 
Lord,  in  my  views  let  both  united  be; 
I  live  in  pleasure  when  I  live  to  thee." 

"  On  parent  knees,  a  naked  new-born  child, 
Weeping  thou  sat'st  while  all  around  thee  smile^; 
So  live  that,  sinking  in  thy  last  long  sleep, 
Calm  thou  mayst  smile  while  all  around  thee  weep." 

— Sir  Wm.  Jones. 

Epigrams  often  assume  the  form  of  epitaphs,  and  are  both 
satirical  and  serious.  The  following  by  Ben  Jonson  on  the 
Countess  of  Pembroke  is  full  of  pathetic  beauty: 

"  Underneath  this  sable  hearse 
Lies  the  subject  of  all  verse — 
Sidney's  sister,  Pembroke's  mother. 
Death  !  ere  thou  hast  slain  another. 
Learned  and  fair  and  good  as  she. 
Time  shall  throw  a  dart  at  thee." 

§  440.  SQUIB. 
The  squib  is  a  light  and  playful  epigram. 
On  Lord  Palmerston  and  the  Earl  of  Derby  being  confined 
at  the  same  time  with  gout : 

"The  Premier  in,  the  Premier  out. 
Are  both  laid  up  with  pedal  gout. 

And  no  place  can  they  go  to. 
Hence  it  ensues  that,  though  of  old 
Their  differences  were  manifold, 

They  now  agree  in  toto." 

Porson  on  his  academic  visits  to  the  Continent: 

"  I  went  to  Frankfort,  and  got  drunk 
With  that  most  learned  Professor  Brunck; 
I  went  to  Worts,  and  got  more  drunken 
With  that  more  learned  Professor  Ruhncken." 

§  441.   PASQUINADE. 

The  pasquinade  is  like  the  squib,  being  an  epigram  either  in 
poetry  or  prose,  and  in  character  either  personal  or  political. 


41 6  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  term  is  derived  from  the  Roman  fashion  of  fixing  placards 
inscribed  with  satirical  epigrams  on  the  mutilated  statue  of 
Pasquin. 

Brag  and  Grab : 

"  The  initials  of  Brougham,  Russell,  Althorp,  and  Grey, 
If  rightly  disposed  the  word  Brag  will  display ; 
Transpose  them  and  Grab  will  appear  to  the  view, 
Which  hints  at  what  many  assert  to  be  true — 
That  they,  like  former  statesmen,  still  follow  the  plan 
First  to  brag  what  they'll  do,  and  then  grab  all  they  can." 

The  following  by  Landor  is  more  bitter : 

"George  the  First  was  reckoned  vile, 
Viler  George  the  Second; 
And  what  mortal  ever  heard 
Any  good  of  George  the  Third? 
When  from  earth  the  Fourth  ascended, 
God  be  praised,  the  Georges  ended !" 

§  442.  LAMPOON. 

The  lampoon  is  abusive  satire,  chiefly  in  the  epigrammatic 
form.  It  is  personal  and  scurrilous.  A  well-known  example 
may  be  found  in  Byron's  verses,  beginning  "  Born  in  a  garret, 
in  a  kitchen  bred." 

§  443.    BON-MOT. 

By  the  bon-mot  is  meant  a  happy  saying  characterized  by 
wit,  acuteness,  and  epigrammatic  terseness. 

"  Speech  was  given  to  man  to  conceal  his  thoughts." — Attributed  to 
Talleyrand. 

"  Orthodoxy  is  my  doxy.  Heterodoxy  is  another  man's  doxy." — Bishop 
Warburton. 

"No  man  is  a  hero  to  his  valet." — Madame  de  S6vign6. 

•'Dogmatism  is  the  maturity  of  puppyism." — Douglas  Jerrold. 

"Boston  State-House  is  the  hub  of  the  solar  system." — O.  W.  HoLMES. 

"No  man  was  ever  written  out  of  reputation  but  by  himself" — Bentley. 

"God  helps  them  that  help  themselves."— Benjamin  Franklin. 

§  444.  PARODY. 
The  parody  is  the  adoption  of  the  words  of  a  well-known 
author  which  are  diverted  so  as  to  give  a  different  meaning  of 
a  ludicrous  character. 


The  Ridiculous.  417 

"  O,  ever  thus,  from  childhood's  hour, 
I've  seen  my  fondest  hopes  decay; 
I  never  loved  a  tree  or  flower, 
But  'twas  the  first  to  fade  away." 

"O,  ever  thus,  from  childhood's  hour 
This  cruel  fate  on  me  hath  fell; 
There  always  comes  a  soaking  shower 
When  I've  forgot  my  umberell." 

Parody  was  largely  employed  by  Aristophanes  for  the  pur- 
pose of  turning  into  ridicule  those  against  whom  he  directed  it. 
Socrates  and  Euripides  were  in  particular  the  objects  of  his 
fierce  attacks.  At  the  present  day  it  is  but  seldom  used, 
except  for  literary  satire.  One  of  the  best  examples  may  be 
found  in  Canning's  Knife-grinder,  in  which  he  parodies  the 
metre,  the  sentiments,  and  the  style,  but  not  the  words  of 
Southey.  The  Rejected  Addresses  of  James  and  Horace 
Smith,  Punch's  Prize  Novelists,  by  Thackeray,  and  other  sim- 
ilar productions,  may  all  be  regarded  as  parodies. 

The  following  are  parodies  on  Tennyson  and  Browning : 

"From  where  the  river  chafes  and  whirls, 
Mixed  with  the  murmur  of  the  breeze, 
In  ouzel-haunted  willow-trees, 
The  laugh  of  silver-throated  girls 

"Comes  rippling  light;  and  crystal  keen, 
The  mellow  clink  of  plate  and  spoon 
Throbs  through  the  golden  afternoon, 
With  round  suggestive  cloops  between. 

"They  hold  a  picnic  on  the  lawn, 
With  pie,  and  round  a  very  dream 
Of  succulence  ;  and  from  the  stream 
Cool  claret-flasks  are  dripping  drawn 

"For  such,  unwarped  of  icHe  fears, 
As  dare  of  countenance  to  scant 
Teetotalism  ululant, 
The  snub-nosed  priest  of  latter  years." 

— Alfr — D  T — NN — s — N. 

"The  youngest  there 
Night-hawk  i'  the  gutter  hatched,  true  Whitechapel, 
Lost  to  Colenso,  dead  to  hie  and  haec. 
As  likewise  to  •  vengeance  of  Jenny's  case,' 
Extravasated  juvenility, 


41 8  Elements  of  RJutoric. 

Live  offering  to  the  London  Juggernaut, 

Yet  none  the  less  a  soul,  that  Heaven,  once  sent, 

Asks  and  expects  account  of — mark  you  that ! 

Wink-tipped,  snout-tapped,  and  hand  spread  in  fanwise, 

Right  thumb  on  coal -grimed  snub,  and  left  thumb  jerked 

Over  sinister  clavicle,  shot  away 

Like  wild  for  Tottenham  Corner,  squeaking  shrill 

As  dormouse,  dodging  where  yon  high-lows  tramp 

Over  the  exquisite  wee  nest  of  her ; 

D'ye  twig,  my  blowen  ? 

Then  the  slavey, 

'  Lawks  !' "  R.  B. 

§  445.   SATIRICAL    POETRY    IN   GENERAL. 

Satirical  poetry  may  be  found  existing  in  every  nation,  and 
probably  arises  at  an  early  period.  This  was  the  case  in 
Greece,  where  the  names  of  Archilochus  and  Simonides  are 
associated  with  this  kind  of  composition.  But  the  works  of 
Aristophanes  present  the  most  extensive,  the  most  elaborate, 
the  most  vehement,  and  the  most  unscrupulous  satire  that  can 
be  found.  The  resources  of  the  drama  enabled  him  to  carry 
personality  farther  than  can  be  possible  now;  for  the  Socrates, 
the  Euripides,  or  the  Cleon  of  his  plays  was  represented  before 
the  people  endowed,  by  means  of  a  mask,  with  the  familiar  feat- 
ures of  the  original.  In  English  the  earliest  specimen  may  be 
found  in  Langland's  "  Vision  concerning  Piers  the  Plowman." 
Skelton's  Colin  Clout  comes  next  in  order  of  time.  The  great- 
est poem  of  this  kind  in  English  is  Butler's  Hudibras,  which 
is  aimed  at  the  Puritan  part)',  but  more  particularly  at  the  hy- 
pocrisy which  it  concealed.  It  is  full  of  the  most  brilliant  wit 
and  keenest  sarcasm ;  and  though  the  obscurity  of  many  of 
the  allusions  prevents  it  from  being  appreciated  at  the  present 
day  by  the  general  reader,  its  best  passages  are  so  well  known 
and  widely  quoted  that  they  are  as  "  familiar  in  our  mouths  as 
household  words." 

The  Romans  had  an  original  kind  of  poetry  known  as  the 
"Satire."  This  is  a  poem  written  in  heroic  metre,  varying  in 
length  from  a  few  score  of  lines  to  a  few  hundred.  Those  of 
Horace  and  Juvenal  are  well-known  examples,  which  have  ex- 
erted a  great  influence  in  modern  literature.  Boileau  among 
the  French  cultivated  this  form  of  satirical  poetry  with  success, 
while  among  the  English  Dryden,  Pope,  and  Johnson  are  most 


The  Ridiculous.  419 

conspicuous.  The  best  works  of  Dryden  are  his  "  Absalom 
and  Achitophel"  and  "The  Hind  and  the  Panther;"  of  Pope, 
the  "  Rape  of  the  Lock"  and  the  "  Dunciad."  These  four 
poems,  though  based  upon  the  plan  of  the  Roman  satire,  go 
somewhat  beyond  it,  and  constitute  a  class  of  poetry  which  is 
not  unUke  the  Hudibras.  Byron's  "  English  Bards  and  Scotch 
Reviewers"  is  one  of  the  most  vigorous  ever  written  on  the 
Roman  model,  and  Bulwer's  "New  Timon"  is  the  last  of  any 
note.  In  this  poem  there  occurred  an  attack  upon  Tennyson, 
which  was  promptly  met  by  that  poet.  The  attack  and  rejoinder 
produced  a  great  sensation  in  the  world  of  letters,  and  the  fol- 
lowing extracts  will  serve  as  examples  of  this  kind  of  poetry  : 

"NEW  TIMON." 

"  Not  mine,  not  mine  (O  Muse,  forbid  !)  the  boon 
Of  borrowed  notes,  the  mockbird's  modish  tune ; 
The  jingling  medley  of  purloined  conceits, 
Outbabying  Wordsworth,  and  outglittering  Keats; 
Where  all  the  airs  of  patchwork-pastoral  chime 
To  drowsy  ears  in  Tennysonian  rhyme. 

Let  School-miss  Alfred  vent  her  chaste  delight 
On  'darling  little  rooms  so  warm  and  bright* 
Chant,  *  I'm  aweary,'  in  infectious  strain, 
And  catch  her  'blue-fly  singing  i'  the  pane.'" 

TENNYSON— "THE    NEW   TIMON    AND  THE   POETS." 

"  We  know  him,  out  of  Shakespeare's  art, 

And  those  fine  curses  which  he  spoke; 
The  old  Timon,  with  his  noble  heart. 

That,  strongly  loathing,  greatly  broke. 
So  died  the  Old :  here  comes  the  New : 

Regard  him  :  a  familiar  face  : 
I  thought  we  knew  him  :    What,  it's  you, 

The  padded  man — that  wears  the  stays; 
Who  killed  the  girls  and  thrilled  the  boys 

With  dandy  pathos  when  you  wrote  ! 
A  Lion,  you,  that  made  a  noise. 

And  shook  a  mane  en  papillotes. 

A  Timon  you  !     Nay,  nay,  for  shame  1 

It  looks  too  arrogant  a  jest — 
The  fierce  old  man — to  take  his  name. 

You  bandbox.     Oflf,  and  let  him  rest." 


420  Elemefits  of  RJietoric. 

§   446.    SATIRICAL   WRITINGS   IN  TROSE. 

Prose  satire  is  not  of  frequent  occurrence  in  ancient  litera- 
ture, Lucian's  "  Dialogues  of  the  Dead"  being  the  most  conspic- 
uous example;  but  in  modern  times  it  has  assumed  a  more 
prominent  position,  many  of  the  greatest  works  of  genius  in 
different  countries  of  Europe  having  been  put  forth  in  this 
form.  The  field  here  is  indeed  immeasurable,  embracing  all 
that  Juvenal  mentions  as  included  in  his  own  survey :  Quid- 
quid  agunt  homines. 

Rabelais  has  been  called  the  "  father  of  modern  satire." 
"  Don  Quixote"  was  directed  against  the  romantic  fiction  of  the 
age,  and  is  said  to  have  put  an  end  to  it — "  Cervantes  laughed 
Spain's  chivalry  away."  "Gulliver's  Travels"  begins  with  satir- 
izing national  politics,  and  ends  with  a  satire  on  humanity  itself. 
In  this  may  be  seen  the  progress  of  Swift's  own  mind,  from 
morbid  melancholy  to  mental  disease,  beginning  as  it  does 
with  keen  sarcasm,  which  deepens  into  savage  gloom  and 
madness.  "  The  Adventures  of  Baron  Munchausen  "  was  in- 
tended to  satirize  travellers'  tales.  Whately's  "  Historic  Doubts 
relative  to  Napoleon  Bonaparte  "  is  a  satire  on  Hume's  argu- 
ment against  miracles. 

Satire,  which  has  thus  entered  into  works  of  fiction,  has  taken 
a  place  in  many  of  the  best  of  the  modern  novels.  Dickens 
is  a  satirist.  In  "Oliver  Twist"  his  satire  is  directed  against 
the  workhouses;  in  "Nicholas  Nickleby"  against  the  country 
schools;  in  "Martin  Chuzzlewit"  against  the  United  States; 
in  "Bleak  House"  against  the  Court  of  Chancery.  In  all  of 
Thackeray's  novels  the  satire  is  directed  against  the  hollow- 
ness  and  insincerity  of  modern  society.  His  motto  is.  Vanity 
of  vanities;  and  he  attacks  everything  as  a  huge  sham. 

Carlyle  attacks  shams,  but  in  a  different  way;  and  thus  he 
and  Thackeray  have  this  one  thing  in  common,  though  they  are 
as  wide  as  the  poles  asunder  in  everything  else. 

§  447.    SPECIAL    FORMS   OF   THE    RIDICULOUS. 

The  ridiculous  exists  in  literature  in  many  special  forms  of 
composition,  which  are  sometimes  called  figures  of  wit  and  hu- 
mor. Without  applying  this  name  to  every  case,  it  may  be 
well  to  consider  them  in  order. 


The  Ridiculous.  421 

§  448.    BANTER. 

Banter  is  a  species  of  light  and  delicate  raillery,  which, 
though  consistent  with  good  feeling  among  friends,  is  also  an 
effective  weapon  against  enemies.  The  following  is  an  excel- 
lent example  by  the  Rev.  Sydney  Smith,  whose  satire  generally 
assumed  this  playful  form  : 

"  I  do  not  mean  to  be  disrespectful ;  but  the  attempt  of  the  Lords  to  stop 
the  progress  of  reform  reminds  me  very  forcibly  of  the  great  storm  of  Sid- 
mouth,  and  of  the  conduct  of  the  excellent  Mrs.  Partington  on  that  occasion. 
In  the  winter  of  1824  there  set  in  a  great  flood  upon  that  town.  The  tide 
rose  to  an  incredible  height ;  the  waves  rushed  in  upon  the  houses,  and 
everything  was  threatened  with  destruction.  In  the  midst  of  this  sublime 
and  terrible  storm,  Dame  Partington,  who  lived  upon  the  beach,  was  seen 
at  the  door  of  her  house,  with  mop  and  pattens,  trundling  her  mop,  squeez- 
ing out  ^the  sea-water,  and  vigorously  pushing  away  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
The  Atlantic  was  roused ;  Mrs.  Partington's  spirit  was  up  ;  but  I  need  not 
tell  you  that  the  contest  was  unequal.  The  Atlantic  Ocean  beat  Mrs.  Par- 
tington. She  was  excellent  at  a  slop  or  a  puddle,  but  she  should  not  have 
meddled  with  a  tempest.  Gentlemen,  be  at  your  ease.  Be  quiet  and  steady. 
You-will  beat  Mrs.  i*arti«gton." 

§  449.    CHAFF. 

By  "chaff"  is  meant  a  trifling  and  teasing  pleasantry,  where 
one  rallies  another  generally  by  means  of  personalities.  The 
word  "quiz"  is  used  in  very  much  the  same  sense.  "Bad- 
inage" is  another  term  of  similar  signification,  derived  from  the 
French.  All  of  these  are  synonymous  with  banter.  An  ex- 
ample may  be  found  in  Sydney  Smith's  impromptu  on  Jeffrey : 

"  Short,  but  not  so  fat  as  Bacchus, 
Witty  as  Horatius  Flaccus, 
As  great  a  Jacobin  as  Gracchus, 
Riding  on  a  little  jackass." 

§  450.    PARONOMASIA. 

Wit  is  associated,  as  we  have  seen,  with  pointed  language. 
It  plays  with  words,  and  one  form  of  such  play  is  called  paro- 
nomasia, which  by  some  is  classed  among  the  figures  of  rela- 
tivity. Two  forms  of  this  may  be  noticed :  first,  where  it  is 
made  use  of  in  a  serious  way;  and,  secondly,  where  the  aim  is 
the  ridiculous. 

I.  The  serious  use. 


422  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

This  is  common  in  all  ages.  Names  were  often  given  in  this 
way.  The  figure  is  used  in  our  Lord's  words,  "  Thou  art  Peter," 
etc.     Milton  has  an  example  of  it  in  the  words — 

"  To  begirt  the  Almighty's  throne. 
Beseeching  or  besieging." 

The  conversation  between  Gregory  the  Great  and  the  slave- 
merchants  at  Rome  is  a  well-known  case  of  the  paronomasia, 
being  more  perceptible  in  the  Latin  than  in  the  translation. 
The  Puritans  loved  it,  and  their  works  abound  in  examples. 

§  451.    THE   PUN. 

2.  The  ridiculous  use  of  the  play  upon  words  is  more  familiar. 

The  name  antanaclasiswas  often  given  to  this  in  ancient  times. 
In  English  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  pun.  Aristophanes 
affords  many  examples  in  Greek,  and  Plautus  and  Terence  in 
Latin.  Thus  Plautus  plays  on  '^medicus"  and  ^^mendicus,''  Ter- 
ence on  '^ amentium'^  and  ^'' amantium.'"  Cicero  was  partial  to 
its  use.  In  our  own  literature  Shakespeare  exhibits  partiality 
to  it,  but  with  him  it  is  invariably  bad.  Dr.  Johnson  rightly 
condemns  his  love  of  "  quibbles ;"  and  as  all  puns  down  to  his 
day  were  almost  invariably  weak  and  bad,  he  is  justified  in  the 
detestation  which  he  expressed  against  them.  Thomas  Hood 
gave  a  new  departure  to  this  species  of  wit.  Hitherto  they  had 
consisted  of  plays  on  the  sound;  with  him  there  was  a  play  on 
the  spirit  as  well  as  on  the  letter.  This  is  the  nature  of  most 
of  those  that  abound  in  his  writings : 

"  His  death,  which  happened  in  his  berth, 
At  forty  odd  befell ; 
They  went  and  told  the  sexton,  and 
The  sexton  toll'd  the  bell." 

On  the  closed  establishments  of  Moses  and  Son,  tailors  : 

"  Half  Hebrew,  half  English,  the  slopseller  Moses 
Cries  clo'es  all  the  week,  but  on  Saturday  closes." 

— R.  Simpson. 

Composed  when  Soyer  went  to  join  his  august  fellow-artists 
in  Elysium  : 

"  Soyer  is  gone  !     Then  be  it  said — 
Alas  !  alas  ! — great  Pan  is  dead." 


The  Ridiculous,  423 

On  reading  the  fulsome  inscription  which  Soyer  had  placed 
over  his  wife's  grave,  Douglas  Jerrold  shook  his  head,  and  said 
— "  Mock  Turtle  !" 

§  452.    RETORT. 

Retort  is  an  effective  and  striking  mode  of  displaying  wit. 
It  is  a  powerful  weapon  in  debate,  where  its  use  has  been  al- 
ready sufficiently  illustrated.  Examples  abound  in  the  plays 
of  Shakespeare  ;  as  in  Hamlet : 

"  Queen.  Hamlet,  you  have  your  father  much  offended. 
Hamlet.  Madam,  you  have  my  father  much  offended." 

A  Dutch  diplomatist,  being  jocularly  asked  by  Prince  Bis- 
marck "  why  Holland  showed  itself  so  strongly  anti-German, 
when  it  was,  after  all,  but  a  corner  of  Germany,"  replied  that 
"  Holland  had  a  literature  before  Germany  had  a  grammar." 

§  453.    REPARTEE. 

Repartee  is  the  witty  retort  in  conversation. 

A  fop,  who  was  seated  between  Madame  de  Stael  and  an- 
other lady,  said  :  "  How  happy  I  am  to  be  seated  between  a 
wit  and  a  beauty."  "  Yes,"  said  Madame  de  Stael,  "  and  with- 
out possessing  either." 

In  Sheridan's  great  speech  on  Warren  Hastings  he  had  made 
an  allusion  to  the  "luminous  pages  of  Gibbon."  On  being 
afterwards  taxed  with  this  he  laughed,  and  replied,  "  I  said  vo- 
luminous." 

Jerrold  was  famous  for  his  repartee.  Once  a  member  of  his 
club,  praising  a  certain  tune,  said,  "  That  always  carries  me 
away  when  I  hear  it."  "  Can  nobody  whistle  it  ?"  exclaimed 
Jerrold. 

"  Call  that  a  kind  man,"  said  another,  speaking  of  an  absent 
friend ;  "  a  man  wlio  is  away  from  his  family,  and  never  sends 
them  a  farthing.  Call  that  kindness  !"  "  Yes,"  replied  Jerrold, 
"  unremitting  kindness." 

§  454.    DOUBLE-ENTENDRE. 

This  is  a  species  of  innuendo,  where  a  statement  contains  a 
hidden  meaning,  which  is  suggested  or  implied.  This  was  the 
characteristic  of  the  ambiguous  prophecies  of  the  witches  to 
Macbeth,  of  which  he  says  : 


424  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

"  Be  these  juggling  fiends  no  more  believed, 
That  palter  with  us  in  a  double  sense ; 
That  keep  the  word  of  promise  to  our  ear, 
And  break"  it  to  our  hope." 

The  following  is  an  example.  It  is  called  "The  Double- 
faced  Creed :" 

"  I  hold  for  sound  faith  What  England's  Church  allows. 

What  Rome's  faith  says  My  conscience  disavows. 

Where  the  king's  head  The  flock  can  take  no  shame. 

The  flock's  misled  Who  hold  the  Pope  supreme. 

Where  th'  altar's  dressed  The  worship's  scarce  divine. 

The  people's  blessed  Whose  table's  bread  and  wine. 

He's  but  an  ass  Who  then  communion  flies. 

Who  shuns  the  mass  Is  catholic  and  wise." 

The  double -entendre  enters  largely  into  puns  and  other 
witticisms;  but  the  popular  application  of  this  term  is  to  those 
expressions  in  which  the  veiled  meaning  is  unfit  to  be  expressed. 

§  455.    BUFFOONERY. 

This  is  the  lowest  exhibition  of  the  vulgar  sense  of  the  ridic- 
ulous: a  clown's  jest,  the  broad,  licentious  foolery  of  the  slums, 
with  coarse  chaff,  horse-play,  or  low  familiarities. 

§  456.    IRONY. 

Irony  is  classed  among  the  figures  of  relativity.  It  is  gener- 
ally associated  with  the  ridiculous,  and  is  a  powerful  aid  to 
satire. 

Quintilian  defines  it  as  a  kind  of  allegory,  in  which  what  is 
expressed  is  quite  different  from  what  is  meant.  It  may  be 
defined  as  a  form  of  expression  in  which  the  real  meaning  is 
different  from  the  apparent,  as  in  Elijah's  "  Cry  aloud,  for  he 
is  a  god;"  Marc  Antony's  "Brutus  is  an  honorable  man." 

§  457.    INNUENDO. 

Here  the  meaning  is  insinuated  or  implied  instead  of  being 
directly  asserted : 

"  We  do  not  deny  that  he  enjoyed  the  peace  that  passeth  understanding, 
but  the  fact  that  he  also  enjoyed  a  living  of  over  /"looo  a  year  will  not  be 
without  its  significance  in  some  minds." 


The  Ridiculous.  425 

"  The  fact  that  this  book  has  reached  its  thirtieth  edition  might  lead  one 
to  suppose  that  the  Great  Tribulation  may  be  regarded  by  its  author  with 
something  like  complacency." 

Fuller  says  of  Camden,  the  antiquarian,  who  was  said  to  be 
avaricious,  "  He  had  a  number  of  coins  of  the  early  Roman 
emperors,  and  a  good  many  more  of  the  later  English  kings." 

Innuendo  is  the  basis  of  a  new  kind  of  witticism  which  has 
had  some  popularity  of  late,  as — 

*'  A  man  attempted  to  kindle  a  fire  with  a  keg  of  gunpowder.  His  fu- 
neral was  very  largely  attended." 

§  458.   SARCASM. 

Sarcasm  may  be  defined  as  vituperation  softened  and  ex- 
pressed by  means  of  irony  and  innuendo  : 

"  I  ask  this  House,  Is  there  no  control  to  its  authority  ?  I  hope  I  shall 
offend  no  man  when  I  intimate  that  two  limits  exist — nature  and  the  Con- 
stitution. Should  this  House  undertake  to  declare  that  this  atmosphere 
should  no  longer  surround  us,  that  water  should  cease  to  flow,  that  gravity 
should  not  hereafter  operate,  ...  I  think  I  may  venture  to  affirm  that,  such 
a  law  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding,  the  air  would  continue  to  circulate, 
the  Mississippi,  the  Hudson,  and  the  Potomac  would  hurl  their  floods  to 
the  ocean."— Josi AH  Quincey. 

§  459.    SNEER. 
This  involves  contemptuous  depreciation,  sometimes  express- 
ed directly,  and  sometimes   indirectly,  by  means  of  irony  or 
innuendo.      The   more  effective   is   the  latter  kind,  which   is 
described  and  applied  by  Pope  in  the  following  lines : 

"Damn  with  faint  praise,  assent  with  civil  leer. 
And  without  sneering  teach  the  rest  to  sneer." 

There  is  also  a  milder  sort,  which  may  be  observed  in  an 
affected  indifference  to  the  most  important  causes.  This  is 
called  the  nil  admirari  sentiment,  and  its  purpose  is  to  lead  to 
the  conclusion  that  because  the  one  who  exhibits  it  can  admire 
nothing,  therefore  that  nothing  is  worthy  of  admiration. 

§  460.   THE    POWER    OF    THE    RIDICULOUS. 

The  ridiculous  is  a  formidable  weapon  of  attack,  the  power 
of  which  may  be  seen  in  the  history  of  literature  and  in  the 


426  EU^nents  of  Rhetoric. 

events  of  the  past.  Men  can  endure  hatred  better  than  laugh- 
ter. When  a  government  or  an  institution  is  only  odious  it 
may  be  safe,  but  when  it  becomes  ridiculous,  then  the  hour  of 
its  fall  is  near.  Nowhere  is  the  truth  of  this  so  strikingly  shown 
as  in  France.  The  government  of  Louis  XV.  was  called  a 
despotism  tempered  by  epigrams;  the  mockers  and  sneerers 
of  the  salon  were  set  against  the  soldiers  and  courtiers  of  the 
palace ;  and  the  wits  and  satirists  proved  to  be  the  forerunners, 
if  not  the  framers,  of  the  Revolution.  Louis  XVL,  derided 
through  life,  could  only  atone  for  living  feebly  by  dying  bravely. 
Napoleon  dreaded  the  terrors  of  wit  more  than  those  of  war ; 
and  strove  to  supplement  his  victories  abroad  by  silencing  the 
press  at  home,  and  stilling  the  voice  of  society.  But  such  sub- 
tle enemies  were  not  so  easily  overcome;  they  were  active 
under  the  Empire,  and  still  more  so  under  the  Restoration, 
when  they  made  the  name  of  Bourbon  a  byword  for  incurable 
stupidity.  Louis  Philippe,  who  began  to  reign  amid  the  accla- 
mations of  all,  quickly  gained  the  sobriquet  of  the  "  Bourgeois 
King,"  and  his  very  face  was  laughed  at  in  the  innumerable 
caricatures  of  the  "  pear."  Louis  Napoleon's  triumphant  am- 
bition was  assailed  by  the  scornful  epithets  of  Victor  Hugo, 
and  he  was  finally  goaded  to  ruin  by  the  fierce  sarcasms  of 
Rochefort  and  the  irreconcilables. 

§  461.  THE    LEGITIMATE    USE   OF    THE    RIDICULOUS. 

The  legitimate  use  of  the  ridiculous  may  be  seen  when  it  is 
directed  against  acknowledged  evils.  Of  this  we  have  exam- 
ples in  all  ages.  The  keen  wit  of  Horace  was  levelled  at  the 
weaknesses  of  one  period,  while  the  vices  of  another  were  as- 
sailed by  the  fiery  satire  of  Juvenal.  Carlyle  and  Thackeray 
in  our  own  days  have  made  war  upon  the  follies  and  hypocrisies 
of  modern  social  life.  In  every  age  there  have  been  those  who 
with  this  weapon  have  successfully  attacked  abuses  in  philoso- 
phy, literature,  religion,  and  politics  which  would  have  been 
impregnable  to  any  other  assailants. 

§  462.  ABUSE   OF   THE    RIDICULOUS. 

The  abuse  of  the  ridiculous  may  be  seen  where  it  is  directed 
against  that  which  is  good.  It  then  becomes  the  greatest  of 
evils,  since  it  perverts  the  judgment  and  confuses  distinctions 


The  Ridiculous.  427 

of  right  and  wrong.  Ridicule  is  so  powerful,  and  at  the  same 
time  so  insinuating,  that  it  carries  the  hearer  away  in  spite 
of  himself;  and  a  sneer  may  sometimes  destroy  the  effect  of 
the  soundest  reasoning.  There  is  nothing  so  good,  so  pure,  or 
so  holy  as  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  its  attack.  The  sneer 
may  be  directed  against  virtue,  honor,  chivalry,  chastity,  relig- 
ion, and  all  that  is  most  precious  to  man.  It  may  be  aimed 
at  the  loftiest  of  truths,  the  most  sublime  of  scenes,  the  most 
beautiful  works  of  art,  or  the  noblest  writings.  In  such  cases 
the  sneer  will  ultimately  recoil  upon  the  one  who  uses  it,  yet, 
nevertheless,  its  immediate  effect  may  be  powerful. 

In  order  to  avoid  the  disastrous  influence  that  may  be  ex- 
erted in  this  way,  it  is  important  for  every  one  to  distiiiguish 
between  the  use  and  the  abuse  of  the  ridiculous,  and  above 
all  to  learn  to  put  a  proper  estimate  upon  the  sneer.  With 
this  we  must  learn  to  deal  as  with  an  argument,  not  indeed  to 
answer  it  at  length,  but  at  least  to  see  whether  it  be  just  or 
not.  A  saying  is  current  to  the  effect  that  a  sneer  is  an  argu- 
ment that  cannot  be  answered,  but  this  is  not  true.  A  sneer 
can  be  answered,  but  it  takes  time  and  labor,  and  these  cannot 
always  be  available. 

To  one  who  wishes  to  be  fully  equipped  for  every  form  of 
hostile  attack,  nothing  is  more  important  than  a  knowledge 
of  the  history  of  the  ridiculous.  In  such  a  history  not  the  least 
important  part  would  be  that  which  would  be  devoted  to  the 
sneerers  of  all  ages.  We  should  find  that  nearly  everything 
which  we  now  most  revere  has  at  one  time  been  an  object 
of  these  malignant  assaults.  We  should  see  Socrates  carica- 
tured by  Aristophanes;  St.  Paul  mocked  at  by  the  Athenians; 
Columbus  ridiculed  by  navigators;  Galileo  by  philosophers; 
Milton  by  courtiers ;  Harvey  and  Jenner  by  physicians;  George 
Peabody  by  brokers.  We  should  find  the  steamboat,  the  rail- 
road, and  the  electric  telegraph  assailed  in  their  infancy  by 
the  same  class  of  enemies.  But  Time  comes  forward  at  length 
to  vindicate  the  great  teacher  or  the  great  inventor;  and  the 
shafts  thus  misdirected  recoil  with  fearful  effect  upon  those 
who  sent  them  forth. 

The  language  used  by  Byron  with  reference  to  Tasso  and 
the  Duke  of  Ferrara  may  be  applied  to  the  great  man  and 
his  detractors : 

T    . 


428  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

"Glory  without  end 
Scattered  the  clouds  away — and  on  that  name  attend 
The  tears  and  praises  of  all  time ;  while  thine 
Would  rot  in  its  oblivion — in  the  sink 
Of  worthless  dust." 

In  view  of  the  abuse  of  the  ridiculous,  we  perceive  the  truth 
of  the  saying,  "  A  sneer  is  a  fool's  argument." 


CHAPTER  IV. 
THE    FANTASTIC. 


§  463.  THE  FANTASTIC. 

The  fantastic  in  literature  came  into  being  during  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  The  conversion  of  the  northern  nations  of  Europe 
destroyed  the  supremacy  of  their  gods,  but  did  not  remove 
them  from  the  thoughts,  fears,  and  affections  of  the  people. 
These  mythological  beings  lived  anew  in  the  common  life  of 
men ;  driven  out  from  religion,  they  took  up  their  abode  in 
superstition ;  and  inspired  legends,  traditions,  and  the  great 
body  of  that  humble  literature  known  as  Folk  lore.  The  rich- 
est and  most  varied  store  of  such  productions  of  the  fancy  have 
been  derived  from  the  Teutonic  nations.  The  Celts  have  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  common  stock,  and  much  is  also  due 
to  the  Arabians.  From  the  first  of  these  sources  we  have  re- 
ceived sylphs,  gnomes,  salamanders,  sprites,  elves,  trolls,  fairies, 
witches,  goblins,  and  many  others  of  a  similar  kind.  From  the 
Celts  have  been  drawn  all  those  wonderful  beings  which  form 
the  machinery  of  the  Arthurian  legends.  From  the  Arabians 
we  have  obtained  enchanters,  djinns,  afrits,  peris,  and  the  like. 
All  these,  combined  and  fused  together,  blended  with  Christian 
legends,  and  out  of  the  union  there  arose  new  beings,  such  as 
the  mediaeval  devil,  with  characteristics  of  horns,  tail,  and  cloven 
hoof;  the  mediaeval  ghost,  appearing  at  midnight  and  vanish- 
ing at  cockcrow;  the  saint,  with  his  power  over  demons;  and 
all  the  world  of  the  supernatural. 

The  result  was  a  new  element,  which  entered  into  modern 


The  Fantastic.  429 

literature,  and  inspired  it  from  the  very  first.  We  see  its  in- 
fluence in  the  metrical  romance,  in  Dante,  Chaucer,  Spenser, 
and  Shakespeare,  in  Tasso  and  Ariosto;  but  its  full  presence 
and  power  can  best  be  seen  in  works  that  are  based  altogether 
upon  this  element,  such  as  the  Thousand  and  One  Nights,  and 
all  those  fairy  tales  which  have  been  for  ages  the  delight  of 
young  and  old,  and  have  exerted  no  small  influence  upon  liter- 
ature. This  influence  shows  itself  in  the  effort  made  by  some 
imaginative  writers  to  form  for  themselves  new  scenes  and 
characters  which  shall  rival  these  time-honored  creations  of 
the  past.  Some  of  their  works  do  not  rise  above  the  level 
of  the  common  ghost-story ;  but  others  are  of  a  far  higher  or- 
der, and  may  be  illustrated  in  prose  by  Schiller's  Ghost  Seer 
and  Bulwer's  Strange  Story,  and  in  poetry  by  Goethe's  Faust 
and  Coleridge's  Ancient  Mariner. 

The  fantastic  in  literature  may  be  defined  as  the  unrestrained 
exercise  of  fancy,  where  the  writer  ventures  into  regions  of  wild 
■  and  unbridled  speculation,  and  creates  new  scenes  and  new 
characters,  which  present  a  strange  compound  of  the  natural 
and  supernatural.  Here  the  beautiful  and  the  sublime  are  in- 
termingled with  the  ridiculous,  and  there  result  two  distinct 
elements,  the  first  of  which  may  be  called  the  grotesque,  and 
the  second  the  horrible. 

1.  The  grotesque. 

The  grotesque  may  be  defined  as  the  caricature  of  the  beau- 
tiful, or,  in  other  words,  as  the  union  of  the  beautiful  with  the 
ridiculous.  Thus,  in  art,  a  carved  face  may  have  well-formed 
features,  but  if  these  are  distorted  by  an  exaggerated  grimace 
it  becomes  grotesque.  This  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the 
ugly,  which  is  simply  repulsive;  whereas  in  this  case  there  is 
no  repulsiveness.  In  literature  it  is  found  wherever  sentiments 
and  language,  pleasing  in  themselves,  are  distorted  and  per- 
verted in  a  ridiculous  fashion.  Examples  may  be  found  in 
the  Ingoldsby  Legends,  and  in  many  of  the  German  stories  of 
Zschokke  and  E.  T.  A.  Hoff'mann. 

2.  The  horrible. 

While  the  grotesque  represents  one  side  of  the  fantastic,  the 
other  may  be  found  in  the  horrible.  This  may  be  considered 
as  the  caricature  of  the  sublime,  or  the  association  of  the  sub- 
lime with  the  ridiculous.     The  horrible  is  never  far  removed 


430  Elements  of  Rhetorie. 

from  the  grotesque;  and  even  where  the  ridiculous  is  not  at 
all  visible,  there  is  often  an  undercurrent  of  grim  and  ghastly 
humor.  Examples  may  be  found  in  many  of  the  tales  of 
Edgar  A.  Poe,  especially  the  "Murder  in  the  Rue  Morgue" 
and  "  Facts  in  the  Case  of  M.  Valdemar ;"  in  De  Quincey's 
"Avenger"  and  "Murder  one  of  the  Fine  Arts;"  in  Lewis's 
"Monk;"  Mrs.  Radcliffe's  "Mysteries  of  Udolpho;"  and  Mrs. 
Shelley's  "  Frankenstein." 


CHAPTER   V. 

THE  DESIRES. 
§  464.  THE   DESIRES. 

Desires  are  twofold,  animal  and  mental.  The  animal  de-- 
sires  are  called  appetites,  and  include  hunger,  thirst,  sleepiness, 
etc.  The  mental  desires  belong  to  the  emotions,  and  include 
chiefly  the  following,  from  which  again  many  subordinate  de- 
sires arise:  i.  Self  preservation;  2.  self-esteem;  3.  ambition; 
4.  avarice;  5.  the  desire  for  knowledge. 

§  465.  self-preservation. 
I.  The  love  of  life  is  a  necessity  of  our  nature,  and  insepara- 
ble from  our  constitution.  It  forms  the  motive  for  actions  that 
may  be  either  good  or  evil,  noble  or  base.  As  it  is  common 
to  all  mankind,  it  is  illustrated  in  all  literature.  Its  results 
are  twofold:  first,  good,  when  it  leads  to  strenuous  endeavor; 
and,  secondly,  evil,  when  it  tends  to  cowardice  or  baseness. 
History  and  fiction  are  full  of  examples  of  each.  The  Odyssey 
presents  the  long  struggle  for  life  carried  on  by  Ulysses  against 
many  perils.  The  Anabasis  describes  the  struggle  of  the  ten 
thousand  Greeks,  who  pursue  their  march  amid  innumerable 
dangers,  and  toil  on  with  unsurpassed  heroism.  Still  more 
striking  is  the  result  when  this  feeling,  which  is  the  strongest 
in  man,  is  cast  aside,  and  deeds  of  valor  are  done  in  contempt 
of  death.  This  has  been  felt  by  poets  of  every  age  and  nation 
to  be  the  highest  and  most  ennobling  theme. 


The  Desires.  431 

§   466.   SELF-ESTEEM. 

2.  Self-esteem  leads  to  the  loftier  feeling  of  pride,  or  the 
lesser  one  of  vanity  and  self-conceit.  The  former  is  often  the 
mark  of  the  greatest  characters,  and  is  associated  with  many 
high  qualities.  In  itself  it  may  be  a  most  powerful  aid  to  hu- 
man effort.  Vanity,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  petty  feeling  which 
is  an  element  of  weakness.  There  is  what  is  called  a  proper 
pride,  which  saves  from  baseness  or  dishonor;  and  there  is  a 
lofty  pride  which  sometimes  arises  from  conscious  superiority. 
It  is  this  which  history  mentions  in  connection  with  Alexander, 
who,  when  Parmenio  says  that  he  would  accept  the  offer  of 
Darius,  replies — "So  would  I  were  I  Parmenio."  It  also  is 
illustrated  in  Caesar's  "  Aut  Caesar  aut  nullus.''  And  again  in 
his  words  to  the  terrified  boatman — "Quid  times,  Caesarem 
vehis?"  The  greatest  conception  of  human  genius — the  Satan 
of  Milton — owes  his  greatness  to  pride,  which  is  visible  in  all 
his  words  and  actions. 

§  467.   AMBITION. 

3.  Ambition  may  be  the  love  of  fame,  power,  or  pre-eminence. 
It  is  closely  associated  with  pride,  though  it  frequently  exists 
without  it. 

The  desire  for  fame  has  its  noble  as  well  as  its  ignoble  side. 
Poets  hope  for  immortality.  "  Exegi,"  says  Horace,  "  monu- 
mentum  aere  perennius."  Kings  aspire  to  found  a  dynasty; 
lesser  mortals  to  establish  a  family,  or  in  some  other  way  to 
perpetuate  their  memory.  The  desire  to  have  a  good  name 
among  men,  which  is  one  form  of  this  feeling,  is  laudable  and 
beneficial.  To  be  indifferent  to  this  would  be  taken  as  the 
mark  of  a  grovelling  mind.  No  one  of  good  character  would 
be  content  to  bear  an  evil  reputation. 

There  is  a  morbid  love  of  notoriety  which  prefers  even 
infamy  to  obscurity,  and  marks  the  evil  side  of  this  desire. 
Empedocles  jumped  into  Etna  for  this;  and  for  this  Eratos- 
thenes set  fire  to  the  temple  of  Diana.  Of  this  class  also  are 
those  conceited  mortals  who  attitudinize,  pose  for  effect,  and 
appear  always  to  be  talking  to  imaginary  audiences.  But  the 
love  of  fame  is  so  strong  that  some  philosophers  consider  it  a 
fair  substitute  for  the  Christian  immortality. 


43-  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  desire  for  power  is  another  form  of  ambition.  Some 
value  this  for  itself,  others  care  nothing  for  it  unless  it  is  ac- 
companied with  all  its  trappings  and  decorations.  Even  Crom- 
well was  not  altogether  satisfied  with  the  solid  reality,  but 
sighed  in  secret  for  that  unattainable  "bauble" — the  crown. 
Power  was  never  held  more  modestly  than  by  the  great  Hilde- 
brand,  when  he  stood  behind  the  throne  through  several  suc- 
cessive papacies,  and  brought  forward  measures  the  effect  of 
which  are  still  felt 

Power  is  wielded  by  men  as  kings,  ministers,  generals,  re- 
formers, philosophers,  statesmen,  orators.  Some  men,  like 
Julius  Caesar,  Charlemagne,  Alfred  the  Great,  represent  nearly 
all  these  at  the  same  time.  The  visit  of  Milton  to  Galileo  has 
often  been  described  as  an  interview  of  two  supreme  powers  in 
different  departments,  the  one  of  poetry,  the  other  of  science. 

Power  is  also  wielded  by  women.  There  is  the  power  of 
wit  or  brilliant  social  attraction,  such  as  was  exercised  by 
Lady  Mar)'  Wortley  Montague,  Madame  de  R^musat,  Lady 
Holland ;  of  great  artistic  talent,  like  that  of  Siddons,  Lind, 
Grisi ;  of  literary  genius,  like  that  of  George  Sand  or  George 
Eliot ;  and,  above  all,  the  irresistible  power  of  beauty,  like  that 
of  Helen  or  Cleopatra,  which,  after  living  its  life  in  the  real 
world,  rises  to  an  immortal  life  in  the  world  of  literature. 

This  desire  for  power  of  some  kind  is  universal  and  ever  ac- 
tive. There  is  a  deep  truth  in  the  words  which  Milton  puts 
into  the  mouth  of  Satan  : 

"  Fallen  cherub,  to  be  weak  is  miserable. 
Doing  or  suffering." 

In  literature  nothing  is  more  impressive  than  the  display  of 
power.  Achilles  puts  armies  to  flight;  Alexander  sighs  for 
more  worlds  to  conquer;  Hannibal  thunders  at  the  gates  of 
Rome.  These  and  others  remain  as  great  monumental  figures 
arising  out  of  the  past,  to  which  successive  ages  look  back  in 
wonder  and  admiration. 

The  desire  for  pre-eminence  constitutes  another  force  in  life 
and  literature.  The  remote  cause  of  the  whole  "  tale  of  Troy 
divine"  was  a  struggle  for  this  on  the  part  of  the  three  goddesses ; 
and  the  judgment  of  Paris  wrapped  a  world  in  flames.  Like  the 
struggle  for  power,  this  has  filled  the  pages  of  history  and  fiction. 


The  Desires.  433 

It  is  conspicuous  in  the  Iliad,  where  Agamemnon  chooses  to 
assert  his  dignity  too  offensively  by  the  unpardonable  insult  to 
Achilles;  and  it  is  shown  still  more  strongly  in  Paradise  Lost, 
where  Satan  contended  with 

"  Heaven's  perpetual  King, 
And  put  to  proof  his  high  supremacy ;" 

and  still  after  his  overthrow  decides  that  it  is 

"  Better  to  reign  in  hell  than  serve  in  heaven." 

In  modern  fiction  this  feeling  has  a  prominent  place,  being 
exhibited  in  such  fruitful  themes  as  the  struggle  for  a  rise  in 
life  and  social  advancement. 

§  468.    AVARICE. 

4.  The  Crcesuses  and  Crassuses — the  millionaires  of  the  past 
and  of  the  present — have  no  direct  influence  on  literature;  but 
the  feeling  of  avarice  is  widespread,  and,  together  with  the 
love  which  all  possess  for  whatever  is  rich  and  splendid,  may 
be  shown  to  have  an  indirect  effect. 

I  St.  The  workings  of  this  feeling  may  be  made  use  of  to  point 
a  moral,  as  when  the  man  who  has  sacrificed  all  for  wealth 
is  represented  as  being  more  miserable  than  his  neighbors. 

2d.  Appeals  may  be  made  to  the  love  of  what  is  rich  and 
splendid,  as  in  Milton's  description  of  the  throne  of  Satan. 
Such  passages  act  as  a  stimulus  to  the  mind.  This  love 
of  barbaric  pearl  and  gold  is  very  visible  in  the  Arabian 
Nights. 

3d.  It  serves  as  a  motif  iw  works  of  fiction.  Thus  the  "  Count 
of  Monte  Christo"  turns  upon  the  discovery  of  an  enormous 
treasure,  and  the  use  that  is  made  of  it.  The  "Wandering 
Jew"  of  Eugene  Sue  has  for  its  motif  the  effort  to  acquire 
possession  of  an  incalculable  sum  of  money  that  has  been 
accumulating  for  many  years. 

§  469.    THE   DESIRE    FOR    KNOWLEDGE. 

5.  This  is  the  purest  and  noblest  of  all,  and  serves  as  the  ulti- 
mate cause  and  also  as  the  animating  force  of  the  highest  de- 
partments of  literature.  History  records  the  struggles  after 
knowledge    of  those   ancient   philosophers   of  China,  India, 


434  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Greece,  and  Italy,  who  lived  lives  which  were  more  admirable 
than  those  of  the  kings  and  conquerors  who  were  their  con- 
temporaries. The  men  of  knowledge  and  wisdom  are  always 
rivals  in  fame  of  the  men  of  prowess  and  action ;  nor  is  it  easy 
to  decide  who  is  the  greater  when  we  compare  such  men  as 
Aristotle  and  Alexander,  Cicero  and  Caesar;  when  we  estimate 
the  separate  renown  of  Milton  and  Cromwell,  Goethe  and  Na- 
poleon. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
THE   AFFECTIONS. 


§  470.  THE  AFFECTIONS. 

The  affections  and  passions  have  much  in  common,  and 
differ  from  one  another  not  so  much  in  kind  as  in  degree. 
By  the  afTections  is  generally  meant  a  calm  and  settled  state 
of  mind,  whether  it  be  swayed  by  attraction  or  repulsion.  By 
the  passions  is  meant  a  vehement  and  agitated  feeling.  Thus 
the  feelings  of  parental  or  fraternal  love  are  called  affections, 
while  the  state  of  mind  that  exists  between  two  lovers  is  called 
the  love  passion. 

The  affections  are  chiefly  the  following  :  Parental,  filial, 
fraternal,  conjugal ;  friendship,  esteem,  veneration,  gratitude, 
patriotism,  philanthropy;  the  moral  affections;  the  religious 
affections. 

The  affections  hold  an  equally  prominent  place  in  narrative 
and  expository  literature,  since  in  the  former  they  are  the  sub- 
jects of  portrayal,  and  in  the  latter  means  of  persuasion. 

Great  stress  is  laid  upon  parental  affection  in  the  Sacred 
Scriptures.  A  large  portion  of  the  book  of  Genesis  is  taken  up 
with  the  fatherly  love  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  Homer 
presents  us  with  the  piteous  figure  of  the  aged  Priam ;  Euripides 
with  the  sorrowful  Hecuba;  Shakespeare  delineates  the  stricken 
father  in  Lear  and  the  despairing  mother  in  Constance. 

Filial  affection  is  associated  with  paternal,  as  in  Shake- 
speare's Cordelia;  but  sometimes  it  receives  chief  stress,  as  in 
the  Antigone  of  Sophocles. 


The  Affections.  435 

The  fraternal  has  not  proved  so  effective  for  literary  handling 
as  other  affections,  but  the  great  figure  of  Antigone  is  a  case 
where  this  is  made  the  all-ruling  motive,  upon  which  turns  the 
whole  action  of  a  play.  Byron's  lines  to  his  sister,  inspired  by 
this  feeling,  are  full  of  tender  pathos. 

The  Alcestis  of  Euripides  affords  the  greatest  example  in 
literature  of  the  display  of  conjugal  affection;  for  here  it  is 
made  stronger  than  any  other,  and  the  devoted  wife  sacri- 
fices all  other  feelings  to  her  love  for  her  husband.  Tenny- 
son's "Miller's  Daughter"  celebrates  this  feehng  in  exquisite 
verse. 

Ancient  literature  abounds  in  passages  illustrative  of  friend- 
ship. Damon  and  Pythias,  Orestes  and  Pylades,  have  become 
household  words.  It  has  received  many  beautiful  commemora- 
tions in  modern  literature,  of  which  Milton's  "Lycidas"  and 
Tennyson's  "In  Memoriam"  are  chief  But  never  has  friend- 
ship been  so  strongly  expressed,  nowhere  has  it  risen  to  such 
a  height  or  exhibited  such  tenderness,  as  in  the  song  of  lamen- 
tation which  David  poured  forth  over  Jonathan. 

To  the  milder  sentiment  of  esteem  literature  owes  much. 
It  is  the  foundation  of  all  expressions  of  approval,  of  praise, 
eulogy,  panegyric,  and  the  like,  to  which  may  be  added  much 
of  the  language  of  benediction. 

Veneration  rises  higher  than  esteem,  and  is  exhibited  towards 
any  great  and  noble  character,  especially  among  those  who  have 
lived  in  the  past.  Ben  Jonson's  lines  on  Shakespeare  may  not, 
perhaps,  rise  beyond  the  language  of  high  eulogy,  but  Milton's 
lines  on  the  same  subject  show  profound  veneration  : 

"What  needs  my  Shakespeare  for  his  honored  bones?" 

Wordsworth's  lines  on  Milton  afford  another  example  : 

"  His  soul  was  like  a  star,  and  dwelt  apart." 

Gratitude  is  especially  powerful  in  religious  themes.  It  is 
usually  intermingled  with  the  sentiments  of  friendship,  esteem, 
or  veneration,  and  other  affections,  but  especially  the  filial. 

Patriotism  has  exerted  a  wide  influence  over  classical  and 
modern  European  literature.  It  is  found  in  many  works,  like 
a  widely  diffused  and  all-pervading  influence.  In  the  histories 
of  Herodotus  and  Livy  its  power  never  slackens.     Among  dra- 

T  2 


436  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

matic  works  it  is  conspicuous  in  the  CEdipus  at  Colonus,  espe- 
cially in  the  enthusiastic  choral  song  in  praise  of  Athens.  All 
departments  of  literature  are  full  of  its  presence,  but  perhaps  it 
is  in  oratory  that  it  is  most  manifest. 

Philanthropy  is  a  modern  sentiment,  and  owes  its  origin  to 
Christianity,  and  the  spread  of  the  more  humane  and  kindly 
feelings.  The  writings  of  Thomas  Hood  are  full  of  this  spirit 
in  its  best  form,  as  the  Song  of  the  Shirt,  and  the  Bridge  of 
Sighs.  Mrs.  Browning's  Cry  of  the  Children,  and  other  poems, 
exhibit  the  same,  and  it  may  be  considered  the  chief  element 
in  the  works  of  Dickens. 

Esprit  de  corps  is  the  attachment  which  one  naturally  con- 
ceives for  his  own  immediate  associates  in  any  order,  society, 
or  class,  and  this  feeling  exercises  an  important  influence  over 
his  life.  The  army,  the  navy,  and  the  church  form  societies 
which  possess  strongly  marked  characteristics,  not  the  least  of 
which  is  the  attachment  of  each  individual  to  the  community 
or  to  its  subdivisions.  In  the  army  it  is  often  as  powerful 
as  patriotism,  in  the  church  as  religion.  Noblesse  oblige  is 
the  proud  motto  of  an  order  which  would  do  for  itself  what  it 
would  not  do  for  its  country.  What  is  called  Chauvinism  is  the 
manifestation  of  this  feeling.  The  influence  of  esprit  de  corps 
in  literature  is  extended,  but  neither  powerful  nor  elevated. 

Moral  sentiments  may  be  ranged  under  two  grand  classes — 
first,  those  which  have  to  do  with  the  sense  of  duty,  including 
all  those  acts  which  are  right  or  wrong ;  and,  secondly,  those 
which  have  to  do  with  the  sense  of  honor,  including  all  those 
acts  which  are  becoming  or  otherwise.  The  moral  sentiments 
are  perpetually  active  in  all  literature,  in  one  way  or  another, 
whenever  we  are  called  upon  to  approve  acts  or  to  condemn 
them,  as  right  or  wrong.  The  standard  of  honor  is  above  the 
standard  of  duty.  It  impels  a  man  to  do  many  things  which 
are  neither  in  the  strict  line  of  duty,  nor  amenable  to  classifica- 
tions of  right  and  wrong.  Of  such  a  nature  was  the  act  of 
Sydney  in  motioning  away  the  cup  of  water.  In  the  Idyls 
of  the  King,  the  characters,  who  are  supposed  to  have  lived 
in  the  sixth  century,  are  represented  as  influenced  by  the  law 
of  chivalry,  which  law  is  expounded  and  illustrated  in  their 
persons,  but  especially  in  the  loftily  idealized  Arthur. 

Religious  sentiments  open  a  new  world  before  us,  in  which 


The  Passions.  437 

nearly  all  affections  may  be  found.  Their  direct  action  may 
be  seen  described  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  in  the  stories 
of  the  martyrs,  religious  biographies,  and  in  the  hymns  and 
psalms  of  all  ages.  In  another  way  the  religious  sentiments 
have  so  influenced  man  that  they  have  given  rise  to  a  whole 
literature,  with  its  own  thoughts,  aspirations,  laws,  vocabulary, 
and  dialect — a  literature  which  embraces  poetry  and  prose, 
narrative  and  exposition ;  and  which,  though  standing  apart 
from  secular  literature,  in  many  cases  borders  upon  it,  and 
at  other  times  intermingles  with  it.  In  some  nations,  as  the 
Hebrews,  the  whole  literature  is  religious.  In  some  ages, 
as  in  mediaeval  times,  all  thought  is  more  or  less  tinctured 
with  religious  sentiment.  At  the  present  day  religious  lit- 
erature forms  a  vast  and  ever-increasing  mass,  including  epic 
and  lyric  poetry,  history  and  biography,  prose  fiction,  dramatic 
writing,  and  oratory. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE  PASSIONS. 

§471.   THE    PASSIONS. 


The  passions  comprehend  all  those  vehement  and  agitated 
feelings  which  are  associated  with  love  and  aversion,  joy  and 
sorrow. 

§  472.    LOVE. 

The  passion  of  love  is  restricted  to  that  phase  of  feeling 
arising  between  the  sexes  known  as  the  amatory  passion.  It 
is  the  most  popular  of  all  the  motive  powers  in  literature  at  the 
present  day.  Rising  but  gradually  into  prominence,  it  has 
been  growing  in  importance  from  age  to  age,  until  it  has  be- 
come the  never-ending  theme  of  poetry,  song,  and  story. 

Its  first  appearance  as  an  animating  power  in  literature  may 
be  found  in  Greek  lyrical  poetry,  such  as  the  songs  of  Sappho ; 
after  this  in  the  New  Comedy,  as  it  is  called,  when  Menander 
made  use  of  it  instead  of  the  satirical  themes  of  his  predeces- 
sors.    Plautus  and  Terence  translated  or  transferred  these  com- 


4}S  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

edies  to  Latin.  Virgil  made  use  of  the  love  passion  in  the 
^neid.  Ovid  gave  it  greater  prominence.  The  first  "love 
story,"  in  prose,  which  is  at  all  like  the  modern  novel,  was  the 
^thiopics  of  Heliodorus.  At  the  rise  of  modern  literature 
amatory  themes  became  pre-eminent  alike  with  the  Troubadours 
and  Trouveres.  Petrarch  in  lyric  themes,  Chaucer  in  narrative 
poetry,  developed  its  influence  still  further;  Shakespeare  gave 
it  prominence;  and  thus  it  rose  until  it  became  the  chief  theme 
of  modern  fiction  in  the  poems  of  Scott,  Byron,  Tennyson,  or 
still  more  in  the  writings  of  the  great  novelists. 

The  history  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  theme  of  amatory 
passion  would  include  the  writings  of  the  Arabians,  the  metrical 
romance,  the  Arthurian  and  Carlovingian  epopoeias,  the  modern 
drama,  the  modern  novel,  from  Richardson  and  Fielding  down 
to  the  present  day,  and  a  large  portion  of  narrative  poetry  and 
of  the  drama. 

§  473.    AVERSION. 

This  is  the  opposite  of  affection  and  of  love,  and  ranges 
through  every  degree  of  feeling,  from  the  mildest  dislike  to  the 
most  furious  hate.  It  is  sufficient  in  itself  to  be  the  animating 
principle  of  a  great  body  of  literature.  The  Iliad  sings  the 
wrath  of  Achilles.  The  Greek  plays  describe  in  various  ways 
the  anger  of  the  gods.  This  feeling  is  particularly  visible  in  the 
plays  on  the  subject  of  CEdipus  and  Agamemnon.  The  ^neid 
attributes  the  struggles  and  sufferings  of  ^neas  to  the  impla- 
cable wrath  of  cruel  Juno.  This  divine  anger  is  prominent 
among  all  the  themes  of  ancient  literature.  History,  again,  de- 
scribes the  hate  of  peoples,  their  fury  in  battles,  the  encounter 
of  foes,  the  ever-varying  progress  of  wrong  and  of  vengeance. 

The  expression  of  the  passions,  as  found  in  literature,  is  a 
profitable  study,  but  nowhere  is  there  such  variety  as  where 
the  different  degrees  of  aversion  are  to  be  unfolded.  Some 
of  these  may  be  found  in  the  following  examples. 

Dislike.  Caesar  expresses  his  dislike  of  Cassius  in  the  well- 
known  words  to  Antony : 

"  Yond'  Cassius  has  a  lean  and  hungry  look  ; 
He  thinks  too  much :  such  men  are  dangerous." 

Blame.  The  language  of  blame  is  similar;  as  when  Cassius 
says : 

"  Vou  wrong  me  every  way,  you  wrong  me,  Brutus." 


The  Passions.  439 

Wrath.     The  scene  between  Satan  and  Death  exhibits  this 
passion  in  an  intense  degree : 

"Art  thou  that  traitor  angel — art  thou  he 
That  first  broke  peace  in  heaven?" 

Hate.     Milton  has  endowed  Satan  with  invincible  resolution 
and  implacable  hate : 

"  What  though  the  field  be  lost  1 
All  is  not  lost — the  unconquerable  will 
And  study  of  revenge,  immortal  "hate. 
And  what  is  else  not  to  be  overcome, 
All  these  remain." 

Denunciation.     This  is  common  in  oratory.     The  vehement 
onset  of  Chatham  on  Lord  Suffolk  is  a  memorable  example : 

♦'  These  abominable  principles,  and  this  more  abominable  avowal  of  them, 
demand  the  most  decisive  indignation." 

The  war  passion.     This  is  akin  to  wrath  and  hate.     It  is 
found  in  many  war  songs,  particularly  the  Marseillaise. 
Scorn : 

"  Know  ye  not  me  ?     Ye  knew  me  once  no  mate 
For  you,  there  sitting  where  ye  durst  not  soar ; 
Not  to  know  me  argues  yourselves  unknown, 
The  lowest  of  your  throng." 

Defiance : 

'•  Come  one,  come  all ;  this  rock  shall  fly 
From  its  firm  base  as  soon  as  I." 

Menace — cataplexis  : 

"Back  to  thy  punishment, 
False  fugitive,  and  to  thy  speed  add  wings, 
Lest  with  a  whip  of  scorpions  I  pursue 
Thy  lingering,  or  with  one  stroke  of  this  dart 
Strange  horror  seize  thee,  and  pangs  unfelt  before." 

Execration — anathema  : 

"Be  then  His  love  accursed,  since  love  or  hate, 
To  me  alike,  it  deals  eternal  woe  : 
Nay,  cursed  be  thou ;  since  against  His  thy  will 
Chose  freely  what  it  now  so  justly  rues." 


440  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Jealousy : 

"  But  oh !  what  damned  minutes  tells  he  o'er. 
Who  dotes,  yet  doubts ;  suspects,  yet  strongly  loves." 

Revenge  : 

•'  I  will  feed  fat  the  ancient  grudge  I  bear  hira." 

§  474.   PASSIONS    ASSOCIATED    WITH    HAPPINESS. 

Joy  is  most  commonly  found  in  amatory-  poetry,  where  the 
theme  is  such  as  leads  to  joyous  anticipations,  or  joy  in  the 
possession  of  the  object.  In  Tennyson's"  Maud  there  are  very 
vivid  expressions  of  this  nature  : 

"  She  is  coming,  my  own,  my  sweet" 

Delight  is  a  keener  and  livelier  joy,  with  greater  extrava- 
gance of  expression.  A  passionate  delight  often  marks  Moore's 
amatory  effusions  :  as — 

*•  And  oh !  if  there  be  an  elysium  on  earth, 
It  is  this— it  is  this."  • 

Enthusiasm  is  a  high  elevation  of  feeling,  which,  when  united 
with  true  poetic  genius,  gives  rise  to  the  noblest  lyric  poetry, 
such  as  Coleridge's  Chamouni  and  Shelley's  Skylark ;  while  in 
orations  it  leads  to  that  fine  fer\'or  and  headlong  impetuosity 
which  mark  the  most  powerful  eloquence. 

Triumph  is  visible  in  many  national  songs,  in  the  battle- 
pieces  of  Campbell,  and  in  many  poems  of  all  ages.  An  ex- 
ample is  found  in  the  song  of  Miriam : 

"  Sound  the  loud  timbrel  o'er  Egypt's  dark  sea, 
Jehovah  hath  triumphed,  his  people  are  free." 

Revelry  is  chiefly  the  characteristic  of  Bacchanalian  songs, 
and  is  best  illustrated  by  those  of  Moore : 

"Fill  the  bowl  with  flowers  of  soul." 
§  475.  PASSIONS   ASSOCIATED   WITH   SORROW. 

The  expression  of  the  passions  in  cases  of  sorrow  is  more 
diversified  than  in  cases  of  happiness,  and  as  a  theme  it  is 
more  widely  extended. 

The  tenderest  expressions  of  grief  are  those  of  a  parent. 


The  Passions.  441 

Moir's  Casa  Wappy  and  Mrs.  Browning's  De  Profundis  are 
memorable  examples. 

A  fine  melancholy  pervades  all  the  writings  of  some  poets, 
and  sometimes  the  chief  portion  of  a  national  literature  will 
have  this  characteristic.  This  has  been  remarked  in  the 
Scottish  ballads,  such  as  Lochaber,  Bonnie  Doon,  and  "  I'm 
wearin'  awa,  Jean." 

Pity  for  the  sufferings  of  others  is  as  effective  in  literature 
as  when" the  poet  bewails  his  own  sufferings  : 

"  O,  it  was  pitiful, 
Near  a  whole  city  full, 
Home  she  had  none !" 

Sympathy  is  closely  allied  to  pity.  Nowhere  is  this  more 
tenderly  expressed  than  in  the  lines  of  the  Stabat  Mater  : 

"  Who,  on  Christ's  dear  mother  gazing, 
Bowed  with  sorrow  so  amazing, 
Born  of  woman,  would  not  weep  ?" 

Expressions  of  fear,  dismay,  or  similar  feelings  abound  in 
poetry  and  oratory.     Jefferson  says  : 

"  I  tremble  for  my  country  when  I  reflect  that  God  is  just." 

This  is  the  burden  of  the  Dies  Irae : 

"  O  that  day,  that  day  of  mourning ! 
Day  when  from  the  dust  returning 
Man  for  judgment  shall  prepare  him. 
Spare,  O  God,  in  mercy  spare  him !" 

Dejection  maybe  associated  with  melancholy, but  is  stronger, 
and  may  be  found  deepening  into  extreme  gloom,  as  in  Gray's 
Ode  on  Eton  College. 

Regret  for  past  actions  is  associated  with  dejection,  and 
goes  beyond  it : 

"  O  had  his  powerful  destiny  ordained 
Me  some  inferior  angel.     I  had  stood 
Then  happy  :  no  unbounded  hope  had  raised 
Ambition  !" 

Repentance  is  associated  with  regret,  but  also  with  self- 
reproach.     It  is  most  commonly  seen  in  religious  hymns : 

"  Depth  of  mercy,  can  there  be 
Mercy  still  resolved  for  me  !" 


442  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Remorse  is  repentance  with  such  strong  self-reproach  as  to 
be  almost  without  hope  : 

"  O  my  offence  is  rank,  it  smells  to  heaven." 

Despair  often  accompanies  remorse.     Poe's  Raven  is  in- 
spired by  both  of  these  : 

"  And  my  soul  from  out  that  shadow  that  lies  floating  on  the  floor 
Shall  be  lifted  nevermore." 

Sometimes  despair  arises  from   suffering  without   any  re- 
morse.    So  in  Prometheus : 

••  For  this  wandering,  ever  longer,  evermore, 
Hath  o'erworn  me  ; 
And  I  know  not  on  what  shore 
I  can  rest  from  my  despair." 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


THE  LITERATURE   OF  THE   DESIRES,   AFFECTIONS,   AND 
PASSIONS. 

§  476.  THE   LITERATURE   OF   THE   DESIRES,   AFFECTIONS, 
AND    PASSIONS. 

The  literature  of  the  desires,  affections,  and  passions  may 
be  divided  into  two  classes,  according  as  it  is  concerned  with 
the  state  of  happiness  or  that  of  sorrow. 

The  state  of  happiness  belongs  to  the  indulgence  of  the  de- 
sires, affections,  or  passions.  This  indulgence  may  take  place 
in  two  ways : 

ist.  By  hope,  which  is  the  anticipation  or  expectation  of  such 
indulgence. 

2d.  By  the  actual  possession  of  the  objects  of  such  feelings. 

The  state  of  sorrow  belongs  to  the  non-indulgence  of  these 
feelings.     Indulgence  may  be  prevented  in  two  ways: 

I  St.  By  being  baffled  or  disappointed  in  them,  or  wounded 
in  any  way  in  the  possession  of  them. 


Literature  of  Desires,  Affections,  a7id  Passions.  443 

2d.  By  being  in  a  condition  in  which  the  satisfaction  in  such 
feelings  is  unattainable. 

By  means  of  sympathy,  happiness  or  sorrow  may  arise  under 
another  form  through  the  power  which  we  have  of  identifying 
ourselves  with  the  feelings  of  others,  so  that  we  rejoice  or  suffer 
along  with  them.  It  is  through  this  feeling  of  sympathy  that 
the  literature  of  the  desires,  affections,  or  passions  exerts  its 
power. 

§    477.    LITERATURE    CONNECTED    WITH    THE    STATE    OF 
HAPPINESS. 

1.  Literature  connected  with  the  state  of  happiness. 

This  includes  literature  in  all  its  brighter  aspects  :  narra- 
tive, which  deals  with  the  progress  of  men  towards  the  attain- 
ment of  hope  ;  and  exposition,  which  deals  with  encouragement 
and  gratification  of  feeling.  This  has  already  been  sufficiently 
illustrated. 

§  478.   LITERATURE   CONNECTED    WITH   THE   STATE   OF   SORROW. 

2.  Literature  connected  with  the  state  of  sorrow. 

The  pathetic  is  of  every  conceivable  degree,  from  the  lowest 
to  the  loftiest;  sometimes  rising  so  high  as  to  equal  the  sub- 
lime, or  even  surpass  it ;  at  other  times  blending  itself  with 
the  beautiful ;  while  in  every  case  it  preserves  its  own  char- 
acteristics. 

The  pathetic  is  the  purest  of  all  influences  which  can  affect 
us.  It  is  lofty,  tender,  holy  ;  it  is  felt  most  deeply  ;  and  while 
it  is  most  profound  in  its  effects,  it  is  also  most  enduring.  The 
most  earnest  books  are  the  most  pathetic ;  for  in  the  most 
earnest  natures  human  sorrow  is  always  felt  the  most  strongly, 
and  this  feeling  is  reproduced  in  their  words. 

The  pathetic  is  associated  equally  with  the  most  simple  ex- 
pressions and  the  most  elaborate.  From  extreme  simplicity 
it  gains,  perhaps,  its  greatest  power;  for  the  works  which  in 
all  ages  have  most  moved  the  heart  and  excited  warm  human 
sympathy  have  been  those  which  are  distinguished  for  unpre- 
tending simplicity  of  diction,  such  as  old  ballads,  songs,  and 
unaffected  narrative.  Yet  it  would  be  a  mistake  to  confine  the 
expression  of  this  quality  to  simple  words,  for  there  are  de- 
partments of  literature  which  are  at  once  most  musical,  most 


444  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

melancholy;  and  the  pathetic  is  so  rich  and  so  many-sided 
that  it  may  well  claim  the  exercise  of  the  utmost  resources  of 
language. 

§  479.  THE   PATHETIC    IN   THE    SACRED   SCRIPTURES. 

The  sphere  of  the  pathetic  is  commensurate  with  liier.iture 
itself,  and  nowhere  does  it  appear  more  strikingly  displayed 
than  in  the  oldest  writings  with  which  we  are  familiar,  namely, 
those  of  the  Hebrews.  Apart  from  any  other  deeper  cause,  this 
may  be  accounted  for  in  the  same  way  that  the  predominance 
of  the  sublime  in  the  same  literature  is  accounted  for.  It  is 
due  to  the  character  of  the  race,  and  also  to  the  nature  of  the 
subjects  treated  of.  These  Scriptures  treat  of  the  emotional 
nature  of  man,  his  relations  with  God  ;  of  sin,  remorse,  re- 
pentance, sorrow,  grief,  and  suffering.  The  pathetic  is  prom- 
inent through  all  the  book  of  Genesis,  especially  in  the  lives 
of  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  and  Joseph,  and  constantly  reap- 
pears in  the  other  narrative  books.  It  animates  most  of  the 
Psalms,  particularly  the  penitential  ones ;  it  is  visible  through 
all  the  writings  of  the  prophets;  while  in  the  New  Testament 
the  Apocalypse  presents  us  with  sublimity  and  pathos  inter- 
mingled. But  it  is  in  the  Gospels  that  we  are  to  look  for  the 
highest  examples.  Here  all  pathos  finds  its  consummation; 
it  becomes  sublime;  it  goes  beyond  the  sublime — it  is  divine. 

§  480.   IN   CLASSICAL   LITERATURE. 

Turning  to  classical  antiquity,  we  find  not  much  in  the  my- 
tholog)%  but  much  in  the  literature.  The  simple  pathos  of  some 
of  Homer's  descriptions  resembles  that  of  the  book  of  Genesis. 
Hector  with  his  wife  and  child ;  the  sorrow-stricken  Priam ;  the 
recognition  of  Ulysses  by  his  faithful  dog,  are  among  those 
touches  of  nature  by  which  the  heart  is  moved.  In  tragedy 
the  pathetic  holds  a  foremost  place,  since  it  deals  with  sorrow; 
and  though  the  woes  are  sometimes  too  colossal  for  human 
interest,  yet  there  are  not  wanting  instances  of  a  kind  which 
awakens  a  fellow-feeling.  Euripides  has  been  called  the  poet 
of  pathos,  and  through  many  of  his  plays  there  prevails  the 
central  figure  of  a  sorrowing  woman — the  Alcestis,  dying  for 
her  husband  and  parting  with  her  children ;  Medea,  the  injured 
wife,  struggling  with  a  mother's  love ;  the  Electra,  mourning 


Literature  of  Desires,  Affections,  and  Passions,  445 

for  mother  and  brother ;  the  Hecuba,  reft  of  all  her  children, 
and  standing  alone,  a  stricken  mother — the  Mater  Dolorosa 
of  Greek  literature. 

In  Latin  there  is  less  of  this,  for  the  Roman  nature  was 
more  stern  and  practical;  and  the  Roman  literature  was  imi- 
tative and  artificial. 

§  481.   IN    MEDIAEVAL    LITERATURE. 

Mediaeval  literature  shows  still  more  of  this.  A  deeper  and 
tenderer  spirit  had  been  introduced  by  Christianity.  There 
are  three  great  instances  in  which  the  pathetic  exerted  an  ex- 
traordinary power. 

1.  The  Latin  hymns  of  the  Church.  These  reflected  the 
sentiments  of  religion,  and  while  strains  of  rejoicing  arose  at 
times  in  view  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem,  the  strains  of  sadness, 
enforced  by  the  presence  of  sin,  prevailed.  Of  all  these,  two 
stand  pre-eminent— the  Stabat  Mater,  which  unfolds  in  immor- 
tal verse  the  woes  of  the  Mater  Dolorosa;  and  the  Dies  Irae, 
which  blends  with  the  sublimest  imagery  the  most  mournful 
accents  of  sadness. 

2.  The  metrical  romance  and  ballad  literature.  These  com- 
positions blend  love  and  war,  and  unite  with  them  an  inde- 
scribable pathos  ;  valor  is  now  united  with  tenderness  ;  the 
hero  is  no  longer  a  stoic,  he  is  a  man,  and  is  not  ashamed  of 
tears.  Woman,  too,  comes  forward  to  take  up  a  place  in  liter- 
ature, side  by  side  with  man.  Chivalry  has  given  her  a  dignity 
unknown  before.  The  Arthurian  and  Carlovingian  epopoeias 
are  full  of  the  new  gospel  of  chivalry,  and  intermingle  war, 
love,  religion. 

3.  Dante,  the  great  overshadowing  figure  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
was  the  poet  of  woe.  In  the  Inferno  and  Purgatorio  there  is 
scarcely  a  ray  of  light  to  relieve  the  darkness  of  that  gloom 
through  which  his  spirit  wandered;  and  even  the  Paradiso 
could  not  dissipate  its  shadow.  The  pathos  of  the  Inferno  is 
overpowering.  It  is  not  his  enemies  only  whom  Dante  finds 
there ;  but  his  friends,  loved  in  former  days,  and  now  recog- 
nized in  torment.  The  father  of  Cavalcanti,  his  teacher,  Bru- 
netto  Latini,  are  those  whose  appearance  wrings  the  poet's  soul 
with  anguish ;  while  the  sight  of  others,  and  the  recital  of  their 
story,  make  him  fall  down  senseless  with  horror  and  compassion. 


44^  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

§  482.   IN   MODERN    LITERATURE. 

In  modern  literature  the  pathetic  has  always  held,  and  con- 
tinues to  hold,  a  position  of  supreme  influence.  Chaucer,  the 
father  of  English  literature,  unites  it  with  his  playful  mirth,  his 
fine  delineations  of  character,  his  vigorous  description.  The 
Knightes  Tale  and  the  Man  of  Lawes  Tale  are  full  of  passages 
of  tender  pathos ;  while  the  Clerkes  Tale  belongs  altogether  to 
this  class.  Shakespeare  gives  us  the  great  characters  of  the 
despairing  Ophelia ;  the  injured  Catharine ;  the  wronged  Des- 
demona;  the  fallen  Wolsey;  with  a  host  of  others,  among 
whom  stands  prominent  the  figure  of  King  Lear.  In  the  midst 
of  the  sublimity  and  beauty  of  Paradise  Lost,  th^  tender  sad- 
ness of  Eve's  farewell  to  Paradise  is  not  the  least  memorable. 
The  poetry  of  Collins  and  Gray  is  deeply  tiuged  with  this. 
Addison  intermingles  it  with  his  easy  grace;  and  by  this  Gold- 
smith has  made  the  Vicar  of  Wakefield  immortal.  Cowper, 
whose  life  was  so  full  of  melancholy,  has  communicated  this 
feeling  to  his  poetry;  and  Burns  gives  vocal  expression  to  the 
sadness  of  Scottish  music.  Byron's  poetrj'  is  full  of  gloom ; 
Keats  shows  the  melancholy  that  consumed  him ;  but  Thomas 
Hood  used  this  power  with  greater  effect,  and  the  poet  of  wit 
and  humor  showed  himself  the  poet  of  pathos,  when  his  Bridge 
of  Sighs  drew  tears  from  all  England.  Tennyson's  In  Memo- 
riam  affords  an  example  of  a  great  collection  of  poems  devoted 
to  this  one  theme  ;  in  Dickens  and  Thackeray,  as  in  Thomas 
Hood,  laughter  is  found  near  akin  to  tears ;  but,  of  all  writers, 
no  one  except  Dante  has  so  uniformly  and  persistently  made 
use  of  the  pathetic  as  Mrs.  Browning. 

The  pathetic  is  also  a  pervading  element  in  that  great  body 
of  writing  known  as  religious  literature.  For  the  religion  to 
which  it  is  devoted  is  directed  to  all  who  "  labor  and  are  heavy 
laden;"  and  while  the  prosperous,  the  joyous,  and  the  self- 
satisfied  may  turn  away  from  it,  the  poor,  the  weak,  the  afflict- 
ed, and  the  mourner  find  in  it  a  never-ending  source  of  con- 
solation. 

§  483.  THE  PATHETIC  AN  ANIMATING  ELEMENT  IN  LITERATURE. 

Looking  back  over  the  great  animating  elements  of  litera- 
ture, we  can  see  how  the  pathetic  differs  from  them  all. 


Literature  of  Desires^  Affectiofis,  and  Passions,  447 

The  beautiful  forms  the  broad  and  general  basis  of  literature, 
as  it  does  also  of  the  fine  arts.  The  sublime  produces  the 
highest  manifestation  of  human  genius.  The  ridiculous  is  a 
tremendous  weapon  of  attack. 

From  all  these  the  pathetic  differs,  as  they  all  differ  from 
one  another.  It  rivals  the  beautiful  in  the  breadth  and  com- 
prehensiveness of  its  scope.  It  rivals  the  sublime  in  its  lofty 
reach.  From  the  ridiculous  it  stands  apart,  having  nothing  in 
common  with  it,  yet  in  its  power  of  assailing  the  feelings  of 
man  it  is  far  superior.  The  ridiculous  may  excite  fear,  and 
terrify  into  submission  ;  but  the  pathetic  softens  the  heart, 
and  draws  it  into  willing  obedience.  As  the  love  of  Christ 
surpasses  satire,  as  St.  John  transcends  Voltaire,  so  does  the 
pathetic  surpass  and  transcend  the  ridiculous.  The  one  may 
show  its  power  by  undermining  the  strength  of  dynasties  and 
overthrowing  governments;  but  the  other  is  the  central  and 
animating  principle  of  that  kingdom  of  heaven  which  shall  one 
day  reign  supreme,  when  all  the  kingdoms  of  this  world  shall 
be  brought  into  subjection  to  him  who  is  called  the  "  Man  of 
Sorrows." 

It  is  an  old  saying,  "  Better  is  the  house  of  mourning  than  the 
house  of  mirth."  Of  all  the  qualities  of  literature,  none  equals 
the  pathetic  for  purity  and  elevation.  "A  thing  of  beauty  is  a 
joy  forever ;"  but  the  pathetic  is  even  more  enduring.  The  joy 
that  arises  from  the  beautiful  is  after  all  a  selfish  joy;  the 
pathetic  leads  a  man  away  from  himself  to  his  fellow-man  and 
to  his  God.  And,  therefore,  it  may  be  said  that  for  mingled 
loftiness  and  sweetness — for  its  power  to  excite  the  holiest 
emotions — for  its  purifying  effect  on  the  heart  and  its  elevating 
effect  on  the  soul— for  the  living  warmth  and  matchless  human 
interest  which  it  throws  around  that  literature  in  which  it  may 
be  present — for  all  these  things,  and  for  the  reason  that  it  is 
the  strongest  ally  of  Christianity  itself,  the  highest  place -in 
literature  must  be  given  to  the  pathetic. 


448  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

FORMS   OF  EXPRESSION  ASSOCIATED   WITH    THE   EMO- 
TIONS AND  PASSIONS. 

§  484.  FORMS  OF  EXPRESSION  ASSOCIATED  WITH  THE  EMOTIONS. 

It  has  already  been  shown  that  the  figures  of  speech  are 
closely  associated  with  the  emotions.  Of  some  in  particular 
this  association  is  very  evident ;  for  instance,  climax,  personifi- 
cation, apostrophe,  vision,  hyperbole,  etc.  The  application  of 
these,  however,  to  purposes  of  ornament  or  illustration  is  so 
marked  that  their  true  nature  may  be  seen  without  reference  to 
any  display  of  feeling.  But  one  figure — exclamation — has  a 
different  character,  and  is  so  closely  associated  with  emotion 
that  it  might  be  regarded  as  possessing  this  for  its  character- 
istic rather  than  any  other. 

By  the  elder  rhetoricians  a  large  number  of  forms  of  ex- 
pression were  laid  down  as  figures  of  speech,  and  were  called 
figures  of  emotion.  According  to  the  definition  of  figures  here 
adopted,  these  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  properly  assign- 
able to  any  such  class.  To  accept  them  as  such  would  lead  to 
an  indefinite  multiplication  of  figures  of  speech,  which  might 
finally  include  every  expression  of  human  thought.  Yet  some 
of  these  are  interesting  and  valuable,  as  serving  to  show  the 
mode  in  which  an  utterance  may  be  given  to  strong  feeling, 
and  therefore,  in  concluding  this  subject,  it  will  not  be  deemed 
irrelevant  if  some  space  is  devoted  to  such  forms  of  expres- 
sion. 

Nearly  all  of  these,  if  not  all  of  them,  may  in  fact  be  con- 
sidered as  different  forms  of  exclamation,  and  may  be  classified 
as  follows  : 

1.  Where  superiority  is  implied  on  the  part  of  the  speaker. 

2.  Where  inferiority  is  implied  on  the  part  of  the  speaker. 

3.  Where  equality  is  implied  between  speaker  and  hearer. 


Expressions  Denoting  Emotions  and  Passions.     449 

4.  Where  a  personal  reference  is  made  by  the  speaker  to 
himself. 

§  485.   WHERE    SUPERIORITY  IS    IMPLIED    ON  THE    PART    OF  THE 

SPEAKER. 

I.  Where  superiority  is  implied  on  the  part  of  the  speaker. 

Here  the  speaker  assumes  to  some  extent  the  tone  of  au- 
thority, and  addresses  the  audience  from  a  superior  level. 
This  class  includes :  ist,  command  ;  2d,  prohibition  ;  3d,  ad- 
monition ;  4th,  reproach  ;  5th,  reproof;  6th,  invitation. 

ist.  Command.  Intense  emotion  may  be  expressed  in  this 
way,  as  in  Satan's  call  to  his  followers : 

"  Awake,  arise,  or  be  forever  fallen  !" 

And  in  that  cry  which  bursts  in  upon  Byron's  description  of 
the  festivities  at  Brussels  previous  to  Waterloo : 

"  Arm,  arm — it  is — it  is  the  cannon's  opening  roar  !" 

But  commands  may  be  milder,  and  may  serve  to  indicate 
merely  an  expression  of  the  speaker's  feeling,  as  in  Lalla 
Rookh : 

"Go,  wing  thy  flight  from  star  to  star, 

Take  all  the  pleasures  of  all  the  spheres, 
And  multiply  each  through  endless  years. 
One  moment  in  heaven  is  worth  them  all." 

Or  Tennyson  : 

"O  hark!  O  hear!  how  thin  and  clear!" 

2d.  Prohibition  is  negative  command,  and  shows  the  same 
variation  from  calmness  up  to  intense  feeling,  "Tell  me  not 
of  rights,"  cries  Lord  Brougham,  "  talk  not  of  the  property  of 
the  planter  in  his  slaves."  "Go  home,  if  you  dare,"  exclaims 
Clay ;  "  go  home,  if  you  can,  to  your  constituents,  and  tell  them 
that  you  voted  it  down."  "  Is  it  that  insidious  smile,"  says 
Patrick  Henry,  "with  which  our  petition  has  been  lately  re- 
ceived? Trust  it  not,  sir;  it  will  prove  a  snare  to  your  feet. 
Suffer  not  yourselves  to  be  betrayed  with  a  kiss." 

3d.  Admonition — warning.  This  implies  stronger  emotion 
than  usual,  with  something  of  anxiety.     It  prevails  in  sermons, 


450  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

but  is  also  not  unfrequent  in  oratory  generally.  "  You  are  stand- 
ing on  the  brink  of  a  precipice,"  says  Lord  Brougham  to  the 
House  of  Lords  in  his  defence  of  Queen  Caroline;  "beware! 
It  will  go  forth  your  judgment,  if  sentence  shall  go  against  the 
queen.  But  it  will  be  the  only  judgment  you  ever  pronounced 
which,  instead  of  reaching  its  object,  will  return,  and  bound  back 
upon  those  who  gave  it."  Again  in  his  speech  on  negro  slavery 
he  utters  this  warning,  "  Now,  then,  let  the  planters  beware — let 
their  assemblies  beware — let  the  government  at  home  beware — 
let  the  Parliament  beware." 

4th.  Reproach.  This  involves  a  still  higher  degree  of  emo- 
tion, and  it  implies  an  accusation  against  the  hearers  : 

"  O  you  hard  hearts,  you  cruel  men  of  Rome ! 
Knew  ye  not  Pompey  V 

5th.  Reproof— reprehension.  This  ascends  still  higher  in 
feeling,  and  the  speaker  no  longer  implies  an  accusation,  but 
makes  it :  "  Arrogant  mortal !"  cried  Kossuth.  "  Thou  dust 
before  God  !" 

6th.  Invitation.  This  involves  kindly  feeling;  as,  "Ho,  every 
one  that  thirsteth,  come  ye  to  the  waters  !"  It  is  most  common 
in  religious  poetry  and  oratory. 

§  486.   WHERE    INFERIORITY  IS    IMPLIED   ON  THE    PART   OF   THE 

SPEAKER. 

2.  Where  inferiority  is  implied  on  the  part  of  the  speaker. 

Here  the  speaker  regards  the  audience  as  in  some  sort 
placed  above  him.  This  class  includes:  ist,  appeal;  2d,  in- 
vocation ;  3d,  entreaty ;  4th,  adoration  ;  5th,  desire ;  6th,  ad- 
juration. 

I  St.  Appeal.  An  appeal  may  be  either  general  or  particular. 
The  general  appeal  is  made  to  the  whole  community  of  read- 
ers, or  to  the  whole  audience  of  an  orator,  as  in  Curran's 
speech  in  behalf  of  Rowan. 

"  I  put  it  to  your  oaths— do  you  think  that  a  blessing  of  that  kind — that 
a  victory  obtained  by  justice  over  bigotry  and  oppression — should  have 
a  stigma  cast  upon  it  by  an  ignominious  sentence  ?" 

The  particular  appeal  may  be  made  to  a  class  of  men,  as  in 
Chatham's  speech  on  the  .Address  to  the  Throne  : 


Expressions  Denoting  Emotions  and  Passions,    451 

"  I  call  upon  that  right  reverend  and  this  most  learned  bench  to  vindi- 
cate the  religion  of  their  God,  to  support  the  justice  of  their  country.  I  call 
upon  the  bishops  to  interpose  the  unsullied  sanctity  of  their  lawn,  upon  the 
judges  to  interpose  the  purity  of  their  ermine,  to  save  us  from  this  pollution. 
I  call  upon  the  honor  of  your  lordships  to  reverence  the  dignity  of  your  an- 
cestors, and  to  maintain  your  own.  I  call  upon  the  spirit  and  humanity  of 
my  country  to  vindicate  the  national  character." 

The  particular  appeal  is  also  made  to  individuals,  as  in 
Shell's  reply  to  Lord  Lyndhurst,  where  he  makes  a  direct  ad- 
dress to  Sir  Henry  Hardinge  : 

"  Tell  me,  for  you  were  there — I  appeal  to  the  gallant  soldier  before  me, 
from  whose  opinions  I  differ,  but  who  bears,  I  know,  a  generous  heart  in  an 
intrepid  breast, .  .  .  tell  me  if  for  an  instant,  when  to  hesitate  for  that  instant 
was  to  be  lost,  the  'aliens'  blanched?" 

2d.  Invocation.  This  is  similar  to  appeal,  and  is  closely  asso- 
ciated with  it,  as  in  Chatham's  speech,  where,  after  the  passage 
above  quoted,  he  adds,  "  I  invoke  the  genius  of  the  Constitu- 
tion."    Invocation  often  assumes  the  character  of  apostrophe  : 

as — 

"Milton!  thou  shouldst  be  living  at  this  hour, 

England  hath  need  of  thee." 

A  well-known  form  is  found  in  the  invocation  of  the  Muse 
at  the  beginning  of  epic  poems.  It  is  very  frequent  in  relig- 
ious hymns,  and  is  associated  with  prayer. 

3d.  Entreaty.  In  this  there  is  implied  a  greater  humiliation 
on  the  part  of  the  speaker.  Brougham,  with  all  his  rude  energy, 
his  vehemence,  and  his  sarcasm,  was  by  no  means  averse  to 
this,  for  the  most  striking  examples  of  entreaty  are  to  be  found 
in  his  orations.  In  his  speech  on  Reform,  he  went  so  far  as  to 
drop  on  one  knee  while  imploring  the  House  not  to  refuse  the 
bill.     While  defending  Queen  Caroline,  he  cries  out  : 

"  My  Lords,  I  pray  you  to  pause,  I  do  earnestly  beseech  you  to  take  heed. 
.  .  .  Save  the  country,  my  Lords,  from  the  horrors  of  this  catastrophe  ;  save 
yourselves  from  this  peril  ;  rescue  that  country  of  which  you  are  the  orna- 
ments. .  .  .  Save  that  country,  that  you  may  continue  to  adorn  it ;  save  the 
crown,  which  is  in  jeopardy  ;  the  aristocracy,  which  is  shaken  ;  save  the  al- 
tar, which  must  stagger  with  the  blow  that  rends  the  kindred  throne." 

When  entreaty  is  addressed  to  a  higher  than  human  power 
it  becomes  supplication  or  prayer,  of  which  there  is  an  example 
in  the  same  speech,  and  following  the  passage  just  quoted  : 

U 


452  Elements  of  Rfietoric. 

**  She  wants  no  prayers  of  mine.  But  I  do  here  pour  forth  my  humble 
supplications  at  the  Throne  of  Mercy  that  that  mercy  may  be  poured  dowa 
upon  the  people  in  a  larger  measure  than  the  merits  of  their  rulers  may  de- 
serve, and  that  your  hearts  may  be  turned  to  justice." 

4th.  Adoration.  This  belongs  to  the  religious  emotions,  and 
is  generally  confined  to  their  expression.  In  all  religious  lit- 
erature, in  hymns,  sermons,  and  narrative  writings,  the  language 
of  praise  arises  naturally  and  spontaneously.  It  may  also  be 
found  in  works  that  belong  to  general  literature,  when  the 
theme  is  closely  connected  with  religion.  The  hymn  of  Adam 
and  Eve  in  Paradise  Lost  is  an  example : 

**  These  are  thy  glorious  works.  Parent  of  good ! 

Almighty,  this  thy  universal  frame.'* 

In  Thomson's  Seasons,  the  concluding  hymn  affords  another 
example  of  the  same  kind  : 

"These,  as  they  change,  Almighty  Father,  these 
Are  but  the  varied  God.    The  rolling  year 
Is  full  of  thee." 

5th.  Desire.  In  this  class  may  be  included  expressions  of 
desire,  wishes,  aspirations,  which  form  some  of  the  noblest 
passages  of  literature.  All  men  feel  the  pathos  of  David's 
exclamation : 

*'  Oh  !  that  I  had  wings  like  a  dove. 
For  then  would  I  fly  away  and  be  at  rest ; 
I  would  hasten  my  escape 
From  the  windy  storm  and  tempest." 

The  choral  song  in  the  CEdipus  Tyrannus  of  Sophocles  af- 
fords a  sublime  example : 

"O  that  it  were  my  lot 
To  attain  to  perfect  holiness  in  every  word  and  deed, 
For  which  there  are  laid  down  laws  sublime 
Which  have  their  origin  in  highest  heaven, 
Of  which  God  is  the  father  only. 
Which  perishable  human  nature  has  not  produced. 
Great  is  the  Divinity  within  them, 
Nor  ever  waxeth  old." 

6th.  Adjuration — oath.  Under  this  head  may  also  be  in- 
cluded all  forms  of  oath  and  adjuration.  These  are  associated 
with  strong  emotion,  and  are  not  uncommon  in  poetry  and 


Expressions  Denoting  Emotions  and  Passions,    453 

oratory.     The  most  famous  example  is  the  Oath  of  Demos- 
thenes by  those  who  fought  at  Marathon,  quoted  elsewhere. 

§    487.    WHERE    EQUALITY    IS    IMPLIED    BETWEEN    SPEAKER    AND 

HEARER. 

3.  Where  equality  is  implied  between  speaker  and  hearer. 

This  class  includes:  ist,  exhortation  ;  2d,  assertion  ;  3d,  de- 
nial ;  4th,  remonstrance  ;  5th,  protest. 

I  St.  Exhortation.  This  is  common  in  oratory,  particularly 
in  sermons.  In  gemeral  literature  it  is  also  found,  but  es- 
pecially in  poetry.  Of  this  kind  are  many  lyrical  poems, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  thrilling  song  of  Burns, 
"  Scots  wha  hae."  It  is  common  in  dramatic  literature,  of 
which  Shakespeare's  Henry  the  Fifth  may  afford  an  exam- 
ple : 

"  Once  more  unto  the  breach,  dear  friends,  once  more — 
Or  close  the  wall  up  with  our  English  dead !" 

2d.  Assertion.  This  is  an  accompaniment  of  emotion,  and 
assumes  many  forms,  among  which  the  general  character  is  the 
same.  An  example  of  this  may  be  found  in  Patrick  Henry's 
emphatic  words  : 

"  We  must  fight — I  repeat  it,  sir,  we  must  fight !  This  war  is  inevitable, 
and  let  it  come.     I  repeat  it,  sir — let  it  come." 

3d.  Denial  is  another  form  of  assertion  : 

"Sir,  we  are  not  weak,"  cries  Patrick  Henry,  "if  we  make  a  proper  use 
of  those  means  which  the  God  of  nature  hath  placed  in  our  power." 

Another  example  may  be  found  in  a  speech  of  Kossuth  on 
the  Hungarian  Revolution  : 

"  They  say  it  is  I  who  have  inspired  them.  No  !  a  thousand  times  no  ! 
It  is  they  who  have  inspired  me." 

"Talk  not  of  the  property  of  the  planter  in  his  slaves,"  says  Lord 
Brougham,  "  I  deny  his  right,  I  acknowledge  not  the  property." 

4th.  Remonstrance : 

"  Our  brethren  are  already  in  the  field.  Why  stand  we  here  idle  ?  What 
is  it  that  gentlemen  wish  ?  What  would  they  have  t  Is  life  so  dear  or 
peace  so  sweet  as  to  be  purchased  at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery  ?  For- 
bid it.  Almighty  Power  !"— Patrick  Henry. 


454  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

5  th.  Protest : 

♦'  Against  the  bill  I  protest  in  the  name  of  the  Irish  people  and  in  the  face 
of  heaven.  I  protest  against  the  power  granted  to  the  Lord-lieutenant  to 
prevent  meetings,  no  matter  for  what  purpose  they  might  be  convened. 
All  I  ask  for  my  country  is  justice." — Daniel  O'Connell. 

§  488.    WHERE    A    REFERENCE     IS    MADE    BY    THE    SPEAKER    TO 

HIMSELF. 

4.  Where  a  reference  is  made  by  a  speaker  to  himself. 

In  writing  or  speaking,  additional  force  is  often  given  by 
unusual  and  emphatic  assertion  of  personal  belief,  opinion,  or 
feeling. 

ist.  Direct  assertion.  This  is  the  plainest  form  of  personal 
reference,  and  abounds  in  oratory.  A  well-known  example 
may  be  found  in  Chatham's  fine  outburst  of  feeling: 

"  If  I  were  an  American  as  I  am  an  Englishman,  while  a  foreign  troop 
was  landed  in  my  country,  I  would  never  lay  down  my  arms — never  !  never  ! 
never !" 

"  As  for  me,"  cries  Patrick  Henry,  •'  give  me  liberty  or  give  me  death  !" 
"  As  for  myself,"  says  Kossuth,  "  it  was  my  duty  to  speak,  but  the  gran- 
deur of  the  moment  and  the  rushing  waves  of  sentiment  benumbed  my 
tongue." 

2d.  Excuse — vindication.  When  a  writer  or  speaker  is  in 
any  way  set  on  his  defence,  a  personal  allusion  takes  this  form. 
A  passage  of  this  character  is  found  in  St.  Paul's  Second  Epistle 
to  the  Corinthians: 

"Are  they  Hebrews?  So  am  I.  Are  they  Israelites?  So  am  I.  .  .  . 
Are  they  ministers  of  Christ  .> ...  I  am  more  ;  in  labors  more  abundant." 

Byron  also  gives  utterance  to  the  same  in  passionate  lines : 

"  Hear  me,  my  mother  earth,  behold  me,  heaven. 
Have  I  not  had  to  wrestle  with  my  lot? 
Have  I  not  suffered  things  to  be  forgiven  ? 
Have  I  not  had  my  brain  seared,  my  heart  riven  ? 
Hopes  sapped,  name  blighted,  life's  life  lied  away  ?" 

3d.  Apology.  This  is  closely  associated  with  the  preceding. 
It  is  often  used  for  the  sake  of  giving  emphasis.  Thus,  in 
Kossuth's  speech  on  the  Hungarian  Revolution,  he  says  : 


Expressions  Denoting  Emotions  and  Passions.     455 

"  Pardon  me  my  emotion — the  shadows  of  our  martyrs  passed  before  my 
eyes ;  I  heard  the  millions  of  my  native  land  once  more  shouting — liberty 
or  death  !" 

4th.  Disclaimer.  Another  form  of  reference  to  one's  self  is 
in  disclaimer : 

"  Perhaps,"  says  Kossuth,  "  there  might  be  some  glory  in  inspiring  such 
a  nation,  and  to  such  a  degree.  But  I  cannot  accept  the  praise.  No  ;  it  is 
not  I  who  inspired  the  Hungarian  people  ;  it  was  the  Hungarian  people  who 
inspired  me." 


PART  VI. 

THE  GENERAL   DEPARTMENTS 
OF   LITERATURE. 


CHAPTER   I. 
DESCRIPTION. 


§  489.   LITERATURE   DEFINED   AND  CLASSIFIED. 

Literature  in  its  most  general  signification  means  all  the 
written  productions  of  a  nation ;  but  in  its  stricter  sense  it 
comprehends  only  those  writings  which  come  within  the  sphere 
of  rhetoric,  excluding  works  devoted  to  learning  and  science. 
It  is  sometimes  specified  by  the  terms  "elegant"  or  "polite" 
literature,  or  "  letters." 

A  fully  equipped  literature  has  various  departments,  which 
differ  from  each  other  in  important  respects,  and  are  marked 
by  distinct  peculiarities  of  form  and  treatment.  These  will 
now  be  considered  in  the  following  order:  i.  Description;  2. 
Narration;  3.  Exposition;  4.  Oratory;  5.  Dialogue;  6.  Drama; 
7.  Poetry. 

§  490.  OBJECTIVE   DESCRIPTION. 

Description  is  of  two  kinds,  referring,  first,  to  objects  per- 
ceptible to  the  senses;  and,  secondly, to  subjects  cognizable  by 
the  mind.  To  these  the  names  objective  and  subjective  have 
respectively  been  given.  Although  such  an  application  of 
these  terms  may  be  regarded  as  not  philosophically  accurate, 
yet  it  may  be  defended,  first,  because  it  is  sanctioned  by  the 
best  authority ;  and,  secondly,  because  there  is  no  other  way 
by  which  the  two  kinds  of  description  can  be  so  well  designated. 


Description .  457 

Of  these,  objective  description  will  be  first  considered.  This 
refers,  in  the  first  place,  to  objects  in  a  state  of  rest,  including 
the  works  of  nature  and  the  works  of  man. 

The  description  of  natural  objects  is  most  conspicuous  in 
books  of  travel  or  adventure.  Thus  in  Kane's  voyages  to  the 
Arctic  regions  a  large  portion  is  necessarily  devoted  to  the 
physical  features  of  the  places  visited^the  fields  of  ice,  the 
vast  bergs,  the  rugged  shores,  and  the  celestial  phenomena. 
Livingstone's  travels  in  Africa  present  the  reader  with  strik- 
ing and  novel  scenes  encountered  there.  Into  most  narrative 
works  description  enters  largely,  and  many  narrative  writers 
have  excelled  in  this  respect.  This  was  the  case  with  Sir  Wal- 
ter Scott,  who  intermingles  these  two  kinds  of  composition  in 
nearly  all  his  works,  whether  prose  or  poetry.  In  William 
Black's  Strange  Adventures  of  a  Phaeton  the  descriptions  form 
the  greater,  if  not  the  more  important  part  of  the  book.  The 
same  thing  may  be  found  even  in  scientific  writings,  especially 
those  which,  like  the  works  of  Nichol  or  Proctor,  appeal  to  the 
popular  taste.  The  astronomer  or  the  geologist  may  describe 
the  phenomena  of  the  heavens  or  the  earth,  and  be  enabled  in 
this  way  to  make  his  writing  more  agreeable,  if  not  more  per- 
spicuous. 

The  works  of  man  afford  a  wider  field  for  description,  and 
are  dealt  with  in  all  writings  which  give  an  account  of  cities 
or  civilized  countries,  for  here  they  are  necessarily  more  im- 
portant than  those  of  nature.  In  general,  the  two  —  natural 
scenery  and  human  handiwork  —  are  equally  regarded,  and 
both  forms  of  description  are  found  to  an  almost  equal  de- 
gree in  narrative  writing.  Thus  Kinglake's  Eothen  refers  to 
the  works  of  nature  and  of  man.  In  history  it  is  often  nec- 
essary to  give  an  account  of  the  natural  features  of  a  country, 
or  of  the  scene  of  any  event,  or  of  the  appearance  of  a  city 
with  whose  fortunes  the  writer  is  concerned.  Thus  Gibbon 
pauses  in  his  narrative  to  give  an  animated  account  of  the 
place  chosen  by  Constantine  for  his  new  capital,  and  in  Pres- 
cott's  histories  the  descriptions  of  the  wonders  of  Mexico  and 
Peru  are  among  the  most  captivating,  if  not  the  most  meritori- 
ous passages.  Beckford's  Vathek  is  a  narrative  work,  in  which 
the  best  parts  are  descriptions,  such  as  that  of  the  Hall  of 
Eblis. 


458  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Works  of  art  form  an  excellent  means  for  the  display  of 
descriptive  power.  To  the  sympathetic  mind  there  is  in  them 
a  suggestiveness  which  is  greater  than  that  of  other  works  of 
man.  For  the  artist  has  already  endowed  his  work  with  his 
own  conception,  and  the  writer  has  but  to  seize  this  and  put  it 
into  expression.  Ruskin's  glowing  descriptions  of  the  pictures 
of  Turner  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  inspiration  which  may 
be  drawn  from  painting;  the  suggestive  power  of  architecture 
maybe  seen  in  the  description  of  St.  Peter's  in  Childe  Harold; 
while  the  same  poem  shows  the  influence  of  sculpture  upon 
one  who  can  apprehend  its  meaning  in  the  fervid  descriptions 
of  the  Venus  de'  Medici,  the  Apollo  Belvedere,  the  Laocoon, 
and  the  Dying  Gladiator. 

Objective  description  refers  in  the  second  place  to  objects 
in  a  state  of  motion  or  action. 

This  is  of  a  higher  order  than  the  preceding  kind,  since  it 
approaches  to  the  life  and  activity  of  narrative,  is  more  stimulat- 
ing to  the  writer,  and  more  influential  over  the  reader.  Under 
this  head  is  comprised  all  movement,  whether  in  inanimate 
nature  or  among  living  beings. 

The  flow  of  rivers,  the  rush  of  cataracts,  the  struggle  of 
ocean-billows,  the  war  of  the  elements,  the  eruption  of  volca- 
noes, and  all  similar  movements  of  natural  objects  form  sub- 
ject-matter for  this  kind  of  description.  Illustrations  may  be 
found  in  Byron's  Thunder-storm  among  the  Alps,  Coleridge's 
Hymn  in  the  Vale  of  Chamouni,  but  the  most  sublime  example 
is  Goethe's  Song  of  the  Angels  in  Faust : 


"The  sun  in  wonted  wise  is  sounding 

With  brother  spheres  a  rival  song; 
And  on  his  destined  circuit  bounding, 

With  thunder-steps  he  speeds  along. 
The  sight  gives  angels  strength,  though  greater 

Than  angels'  utmost  thoughts  sublime ; 
And  all  thy  wondrpus  works.  Creator, 

Still  bloom  as  in  creation's  prime. 


"And  fleetly,  thought  surpassing  fleetly 

The  earth's  green  pomp  is  spinning  round; 
There  Paradise  alternates  sweetly 
With  night  terrific  and  profound ; 


Description.  459 

There  foams  the  sea,  with  broad  wave  beating 

Against  the  deep  cliff's  rocky  base ; 
And  rock  and  sea  away  are  fleeting 

In  never-ending  spheral  chase. 

MICHAEL. 

"And  storms  with  rival  fury  heaving 

From  land  to  sea,  from  sea  to  land ; 
Still,  as  they  rave,  a  chain  are  weaving 

Of  linked  efficacy  grand. 
There  burning  Desolation  blazes, 

Precursor  of  the  Thunder's  way ; 
But,  Lord,  thy  servants  own  with  praises 

The  gentle  movement  of  thy  day. 

THE  THREE. 

"  The  sight  gives  angels  strength,  though  greater 
Than  angels'  utmost  thoughts  sublime ; 
And  all  thy  wondrous  works,  Creator, 
Still  bloom  as  in  creation's  prime." 

The  actions  of  man  are  more  inspiring  than  his  works,  or 
at  least  more  exciting.  A  shipwreck,  as  in  Falconer's  poem ; 
a  battle,  as  in  Campbell's  Hohenlinden ;  a  tumultuous  assem- 
bly, as  in  Demosthenes's  account  of  the.  panic  at  Athens  after 
Elatea,  have  formed  themes  for  description  of  surpassing  ex- 
cellence. 

Milton's  ode  on  the  Nativity  begins  with  narrative  and  ends 
with  description,  under  the  figure  of  vision,  where  the  pagan 
deities  are  represented  as  taking  their  flight  at  the  approach 
of  the  Babe  of  Bethlehem.  Gray's  Elegy  begins  with  action, 
which  at  the  close  deepens  into  universal  calm. 

§  491.  SUBJECTIVE   DESCRIPTION. 

This  is  of  a  higher  order  than  the  preceding  one,  and  is 
more  difficult  of  successful  accomplishment.  It  includes  the 
following  : 

I.  All  descriptions  of  emotions  or  feelings,  as  exhibited  in 
the  expression  of  the  face.  Thus  in  the  case  of  the  Apollo 
Belvedere,  and  others  already  mentioned,  subjective  description 

arises  out  of  the  objective  : 

"  In  his  eye 
And  nostril  beautiful  disdain,  and  might 
And  majesty  flash  their  full  lightnings  by." 
U  2 


460  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  same  is  true  with  Byron's  description  of  the  Laocoon  : 

"A  father's  love  and  mortal's  agony 
With  an  immortal's  patience  blending." 

Or  the  Venus  de'  Medici : 

"We  inhale 
The  ambrosial  aspect,  which,  beheld,  instils 
Part  of  its  immortality." 

Or  the  Gladiator : 

*•  He  heard  it,  but  he  heeded  not — his  eyes 
Were  with  his  heart,  and  that  was  far  away." 

A  description  of  character,  as  seen  in  the  face,  may  be  found 
in  Carlyle's  representation  of  Cromwell  and  Frederick  the 
Great.  This  is  also  a  favorite  practice  with  novelists  and 
narrative  poets. 

2.  The  display  of  emotions  in  action  forms  another  class, 
and  includes  the  struggle  of  conflicting  feelings  in  the  heart;  as 
courage  against  panic,  love  against  hate,  hope  against  despair, 
and  the  like.  Satan's  soliloquy  in  the  Paradise  Lost  affords  a 
representation  of  the  struggle  of  remorse  with  hate  and  intel- 
lectual pride.  The  soliloquy  of  the  Medea  of  Euripides  ex- 
hibits the  conflict  between  maternal  love  and  an  injured  wife's 
thirst  for  vengeance.  In  that  of  Hamlet  there  is  the  conflict 
between  a  desire  to  avenge  the  dead  and  native  irresolution. 

3.  Another  class  is  made  up  of  descriptions  of  character. 
These  abound  in  biographies,  but  especially  in  autobiographies, 
in  connection  with  the  narrative.  John  Stuart  Mill's  auto- 
biography is  full  of  analytical  descriptions  of  his  varying  states 
of  mind. 

4.  Scientific  writings  afford  another  class  in  the  descriptions 
of  the  various  moral  and  intellectual  qualities. 

§  492.  OBJECTIVE   AND   SUBJECTIVE   DESCRIPTION    BLENDED 
TOGETHER. 

Although  these  various  kinds  of  description  have  been  ana- 
lyzed and  considered  separately,  yet  in  general  they  are  found 
existing  together,  and  are  sometimes  inseparably  connected. 

I.  Language  has  often  an  implied  or  suggested  meaning, 
which  of  itself  is  equivalent  to  description.     Thus  the  words 


Narration.  461 

of  Macbeth,  Hamlet,  or  Othello  are  virtual  descriptions  of  their 
states  of  mind;  and  in  many  of  the  famous  sayings  of  great 
men  there  is  something  which  is  more  significant  than  in  pages 
of  ordinary  explanation. 

2.  A  great  action  has  often  this  suggested  meaning.  The 
account  of  Leonidas  at  Sparta  has  a  deep  significance,  involv- 
ing a  description  of  the  Spartan  character.  The  account  of 
the  death  of  Polycarp,  by  Eusebius,  unfolds  the  whole  state 
of  mind  of  a  Christian  martyr. 

3.  The  subjective  thus  intermingles  with  the  objective.  Yet 
there  is  a  tendency  to  the  one  or  the  other,  and  writers  who 
are  famous  for  descriptive  power  will  differ  in  this  respect.  A 
remarkable  example  is  seen  in  the  case  of  Scott  and  Byron. 
Both  belonged  to  the  same  school  of  literature;  both  chose 
kindred  themes,  and  wrote  poems  of  the  same  class,  often  in 
the  same  metre,  with  versification  and  vocabularies  that  were 
in  many  cases  alike,  yet  the  difference  between  them  in  the 
character  of  their  descriptions  is  very  strongly  marked.  Scott 
was  objective  and  Byron  subjective ;  Scott  detailed  all  his 
scenes  down  to  the  minutest  point,  and  was  content  with  the 
object  itself,  without  seeking  to  go  very  far  beneath  the  surface ; 
Byron,  on  the  other  hand,  loved  to  seize  the  striking  features 
in  his  scenes,  and,  after  mentioning  these  in  a  bold  and  graphic 
manner,  to  dwell  upon  their  hidden  meaning.  The  battle-scene 
in  Marmion  may  be  compared  with  that  of  Waterloo  in  Childe 
Harold.  The  former  is  full  of  action— the  strife  of  men,  their 
suffering,  their  wild  excitement,  or  wilder  despair;  the  latter  is 
full  of  the  poet's  thoughts,  and  is  profoundly  meditative. 

4.  Sometimes  subjective  description  is  introduced  by  the  law 
of  association.  This  is  the  case  in  Macaulay's  description  of 
the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings. 


462  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 


CHAPTER  II. 

NARRATION. 
§  493.   NARRATION. 

In  most  cases  narration  is  connected  with  description,  which 
it  so  much  resembles  that  it  has  been  defined  as  "prolonged 
description,"  or  a  "series  of  descriptions."  The  difference  be- 
tween them  is,  however,  a  real  one,  and  is  plainly  marked. 

Description  refers  to  the  point  of  time  at  which  the  scene  is 
observed. 

Narration  refers  to  a  succession  of  events  detailed  in  the 
order  of  time. 

Narration  includes  within  itself  more  departments  of  litera- 
ture than  any  other  kind  of  composition,  and,  like  description, 
may  be  divided  into  objective  and  subjective. 

§  494.   OBJECTIVE    NARRATION. 

This  includes  all  narration  of  external  events. 

1.  This  is  the  essential  character  of  history,  which  must  give 
an  account  of  the  succession  of  events  in  the  life  of  a  nation. 
The  ancient  historians  concerned  themselves  chiefly  with  ex- 
ternal or  objective  occurrences.  Nearly  all  of  the  great  monu- 
mental histories  are  of  this  class;  for  example:  Herodotus, 
Thucydides,  Livy,  in  ancient  times  ;  and  in  modern  times,  Clar- 
endon, Hume,  Gibbon,  Prescott. 

2.  Biography  belongs  to  this  class  when  the  external  life  of 
the  subject  is  narrated.  Thus  an  ordinary  biography  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  would  be  a  narrative  of  the  objective  kind, 
since  it  would  have  to  do  chiefly  with  his  career  as  a  conqueror 
and  ruler. 

3.  At  the  present  day  prose  fiction  occupies  an  in..nense  de- 
partment of  literature,  the  greater  portion  of  which  belongs  to 
the  division  of  the  objective. 

4.  Epic    poetry    includes   the   classical  epic,   and    also    all 


Narration.  463 

the  longer   narrative  poems,   such   as  ballads   and  metrical 
romances. 

5.  Narration  often  enters  into  dramatic  literature.  It  was  a 
favorite  device  of  Euripides  to  explain  the  situation  to  the  audi- 
ence by  a  narrative  put  into  the  mouth  of  the  first  speaker,  after 
which  the  business  of  the  piece  went  on  as  usual.  As  a  gen- 
eral thing,  it  is  made  use  of  in  order  to  acquaint  the  spectator 
with  the  course  of  events  at  a  distance  which  have  an  important 
bearing  upon  the  action. 

6.  Lyric  poetry  often  consists  of  narrative;  as  Hohenlinden, 
the  Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore,  the  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade. 

7.  In  scientific  writings  it  occurs  whenever  it  is  found  neces- 
sary to  give  an  account,  as  in  geology,  of  the  past  ages  of  the 
earth;  in  philology,  of  the  progress  of  language;  or  in  astron- 
omy, of  the  past  of  the  universe. 

8.  In  exposition  it  appears  whenever  the  writer  deals  with 
the  record  of  events,  either  for  the  purpose  of  information,  ex- 
planation, or  illustration. 

§  495.   SUBJECTIVE    NARRATION, 

Subjective  narrative  is  the  account  of  the  progress  of  events 
which  have  to  do  chiefly  with  abstract  qualities. 

I.  It  appears  in  history  when  the  writer  deals  with  human 
character,  human  motives,  or  the  display  of  moral  qualities  in 
action.  Xenophon's  Cyropaedia  may  be  considered  as  con- 
taining narrative  of  this  sort,  since  it  shows  the  moral  develop- 
ment of  one  whom  he  means  to  represent  as  a  model  man. 
Plutarch  exhibits  the  contrast  of  characters  presented  in  par- 
allels. Tacitus  affords  memorable  examples.  It  was  his  habit 
to  devote  much  space  to  the  dissection  of  character;  and  even 
in  his  narrative  of  external  events  there  is  an  undercurrent  of 
meaning,  as  if  he  intends  to  convey  a  moral.  His  Germania 
may  be  taken  as  one  chooses,  either  as  a  literal  account  of  the 
Germans  or  as  a  satire  on  the  Romans;  his  Agricola  as  a  real 
biography  or  as  the  account  of  an  ideal  hero. 

In  modern  times  the  whole  purpose  and  scope  of  history  have 
undergone  a  change.  The  historian  now  writes  with  a  moral 
purpose  ;  and,  not  content  with  the  narrative  of  external  events, 
he  seeks  to  show  the  progress  of  principles,  of  some  one  of 
which  he  considers  himself  bound  to  be  the  advocate.     The 


464  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

"drum  and  trumpet  history,"  as  it  is  called,  has  passed  out  of 
fashion;  the  modern  historian  seeks  not  so  much  to  "tell  a 
story,"  as  to  advocate  some  view,  or  deal  with  the  philosophy 
of  history.  In  general,  those  histories  may  be  said  to  exhibit 
subjective  narration  which  aim  to  unfold  the  growth  and  de- 
velopment of  principles,  rather  than  to  relate  the  story  of  wars 
and  exploits.  Guizot's  History  of  Civilization  gives  an  account 
of  the  rise  and  progress  of  principles  which  go  towards  the  ele- 
vation of  modern  society.  The  constitutional  histories  of  Hal- 
lam  and  Stubbs  are  records  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  ele- 
ments of  civil  and  religious  liberty.  In  political  histories,  like 
those  of  Macaulay,  Froude,  Freeman,  Motley,  and  others,  the 
progress  of  principles  is  noted  side  by  side  with  the  march 
of  events. 

2.  Examples  may  be  found  in  those  biographies  which  dwell 
upon  the  character,  as  well  as  the  action  of  the  subject,  par- 
ticularly where  it  is  regarded  in  its  progress  and  development. 
This  is  especially  visible  in  autobiographies,  like  the  Confes- 
sions of  St  Augustine  ;  Bunyan's  Grace  Abounding ;  the  too 
candid  Confessions  of  Rousseau  ;  in  De  Quincey's  Opium 
Eater ;  Newman's  Apologia ;  the  Eclipse  of  Faith ;  and  the 
autobiography  of  John  Stuart  Mill. 

3.  Works  of  the  imagination  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
according  as  they  refer  to  the  progress  of  incident  or  the  de- 
velopment of  character.  Of  these  two,  the  latter  affords  exam- 
ples of  subjective  narration.  This  class  is  at  the  present  day  an 
increasing  one,  and  the  greatest  novelists  are  those  who  love 
to  exhibit  the  workings  of  the  human  mind,  and  display  the 
emotions  of  the  humar>  heart.  Lord  Lytton  in  his  later  novels 
gives  frequent  examples.  Dickens,  especially  in  his  semi-auto- 
biographical David  Copperfield,  deals  more  with  the  course  of 
feeling  than  with  the  progress  of  incident.  Thackeray  is  always 
turning  aside  from  the  narrative  of  things  to  show,  with  Hora- 
tian  worldly  wisdom  mingled  with  mild  cynicism,  the  undercur- 
rent of  selfishness,  craft,  folly,  or  simplicity  that  bears  his  story 
onward.  George  Eliot  frequently  allows  events  to  drag,  from  her 
love  of  searching  out  the  hidden  springs  of  human  action,  and 
is  greatest  when  she  lays  bare  motives  and  dissects  character. 

4.  All  this  is  seen  more  strikingly  in  poetry.  If  the  great 
ancient  epics  are  objective,  the  great  modern  ones  are  sub- 


Narration.  465 

jective.  Chief  among  these  is  Dante's  Divine  Comedy.  It  is 
not  the  place  here  to  discuss  how  far  narrative  in  allegory  is 
subjective;  yet  certainly  when  the  meaning  is  manifestly  figura- 
tive, it  is  proper  to  regard  it  in  that  light.  The  whole  scope 
of  Dante's  poem  is  figurative.  It  is  an  allegory,  where  the 
characters  have  names  of  well-known  persons,  yet  represent 
qualities.  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene  is  of  the  same  order.  Mil- 
ton's Paradise  Lost,  on  the  contrary,  is  not  at  all  allegorical ; 
but  is  a  work  of  the  imagination,  representing  what  is  conceiv- 
ably an  actual  occurrence,  from  which  a  conclusion  is  to  be 
drawn,  as  from  any  other  story,  /fennyson's  Idyls  of  the  King 
are  largely  subjective.  They  berfong  to  a  quasi-allegorical  order 
of  literature.  They  unfold  the  Arthurian  legends,  where  the 
knights  of  the  Arthurian  epopoeia  are  endowed  with  modern 
modes  of  thought,  and  teach  the  high  gospel  of  chivalry  to  the 
men  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  key-note  to  them  all  was 
struck  in  the  Sir  Galahad,  which  is  an  allegory  in  itself 

5.  Narrative  passages  occur  in  dramatic  literature,  and  when 
the  play  is  of  a  subjective  character,  as  Hamlet  or  Faust,  there 
are  corresponding  portions  of  narration.  Shelley's  Prometheus 
Unbound  is  entirely  subjective,  and  the  passages  of  narrative 
that  occur  are  of  the  same  character.. 

6.  Lyric  poetry  is  highly  diversified  in  its  themes,  and  ex- 
hibits subjective  narrative  as  much  as  other  kinds  of  literature. 
Wherever  the  poet  holds  communion  with  his  own  heart,  or  re- 
lates his  personal  experience,  this  is  to  be  found.  Tennyson's 
In  Memoriam  is  a  series  of  lyrical  poems  of  this  kind. 

Religious  hymns  are  conspicuous  for  this.  The  Psalms  of 
David  are  full  of  narratives  of  the  experience  of  the  soul,  and 
these  have  been  imitated  in  all  ages. 

7.  Subjective  narration  may  be  found  in  exposition  where  it 
is  necessary  to  give  an  account  of  the  progress  of  principles. 
A  writer  on  political  economy  may  narrate  the  effect  of  free- 
trade  doctrines.  A  writer  on  metaphysics  may  relate  the  course 
of  any  given  system  of  philosophy.  In  a  history  of  philosophy 
we  have  narration  combined  with  exposition,  as  in  the  works 
of  Tennemann,  Cousin,  Lewes,  and  others.  In  Church  His- 
tories the  same  thing  occurs. 

The  most  remarkable  example  of  the  difference  between  the 
subjective  and  the  objective  in  narration  is  seen  in  the  Gospels. 


466  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke,  commonly  called  the  Synoptic  Gos- 
pels, refer  chiefly  to  the  external  life  and  actions  of  the  Saviour, 
and  even  the  discourses  have  a  practical  character.  The  fourth 
Gospel  is  subjective.  Here  we  observe  chiefly  the  mind  of 
Christ,  and  the  whole  narrative  tends  to  enforce  the  loftiest 
and  most  spiritual  teachings. 

The  same  difference  is  to  be  observed  between  Xenophon 
and  Plato  in  their  accounts  of  the  Socratic  teaching.  In  the 
former  it  relates  to  practical  life  and  every-day  morality;  in  the 
latter  the  dialogue  rises  to  the  greatest  heights  in  the  discus- 
sion of  abstract  truth. 

Other  examples  may  be  found  in  the  poets  who  deal  chiefly 
in  narration,  the  objective  being  presented  by  Scott,  Crabbe, 
Southey,  Campbell ;  while  the  subjective  is  illustrated  by  Byron, 
Coleridge,  Shelley,  Wordsworth, Tennyson,  the  Brownings.  The 
subjective  has  predominated  until  recently,  when  the  advent  of 
Swinburne,  Morris,  Rosetti,  and  others,  has  led  to  a  reaction. 


CHAPTER  III. 

EXPOSITION. 
§  496.    EXPOSITION. 

Exposition  is  that  kind  of  composition  which  deals  with  its 
subject-matter  by  a  process  of  reasoning,  so  as  to  reach  a  cer- 
tain conclusion,  through  the  discussion  of  facts  or  principles. 

§  497.    OUTLINE    OF    HUMAN    KNOWLEDGE. 

Exposition  refers  to  all  the  departments  of  human  thought, 
knowledge,  or  inquiry.  The  following  is  a  general  outline  of 
these  : 

I.  Science.  This  is  the  investigation  of  positive  knowledge. 
Under  this  class  are  included  the  following: 

1.  Mathematical  science. 

2.  The  physical  sciences,  as  chemistry,  geology,  miner- 
alogy, botany,  zoology,  etc. 

3.  The  sciences  which  have  to  do  wiih  man  in  commu- 


Exposition.  467 

nities — political,  ethnical,  social,  historical,  archaeolog- 
ical, philological,  etc. 
4.  The  sciences  which  have  to  do  with  the  nature  of  man 
as  an  individual  being,  as  metaphysics,  psychology, 
logic,  aesthetics,  ethics,  etc. 

II.  Philosophy.  This  is  the  investigation  of  the  unknown. 
It  differs  from  science  ;  as  the  latter  deals  with  the  known, 
the  positive,  the  concrete;  the  former  with  the  unknown, 
the  immaterial,  and  the  abstract.  Philosophy  treats  of 
such  subjects  as  existence,  substance,  essence,  causation, 
the  absolute,  the  conditioned  and  the  unconditioned,  space, 
eternity. 

III.  Theology.  This  stands  apart  by  itself,  with  a  wider 
field  of  survey  than  any  other  branch  of  human  inquiry; 
for  while  one  school  seeks  to  reduce  it  to  a  science,  an- 
other persists  in  elevating  it  to  the  loftiest  heights  of  phi- 
losophy ;  and  a  third,  going  yet  farther,  calls  in  the  aid 
of  the  supernatural. 

IV.  Literature.  This  includes  the  expression  of  all  the 
thoughts  of  man — description,  narration,  exposition,  ora- 
tory, dialogue,  the  drama,  and  poetry. 

V.  Art.  This  is  the  revelation  of  the  ideal  to  the  senses, 
and  includes  painting,  sculpture,  architecture,  music,  en- 
graving, ceramics,  etc. 

VI.  Technical  and  professional  sciences,  embracing  all  the 
occupations  of  man  in  daily  life;  as  law,  medicine,  war, 
navigation,  engineering,  agriculture,  etc. 

VII.  Manufactures  and  inventions. 

VIII.  Education.  This  is  a  department  at  first  technical 
and  professional,  but  which,  by  handling  the  difficult  prob- 
lem of  the  human  mind,  together  with  its  disciplinary  char- 
acter, enters  into  the  regions  of  science,  literature,  and  art. 

Of  writings  in  the  above  departments  many  do  not  belong 
to  general  literature,  but  are  characterized  by  the  use  of  words 
unknown  outside  the  limits  of  those  branches  of  learning  or 
science  to  which  they  refer.  Every  science,  art,  and  philosophy 
has  its  own  nomenclature,  which  is  intelligible  only  to  the  few 
who  have  been  trained  to  understand  them ;  the  books  written 
upon  them  owe  entirely  to  their  vocabulary  whether  they  shall 


46^  Elemefits  of  Rhetoric. 

be  purely  technical,  and  therefore  utterly  obscure  to  the  gen- 
eral reader,  or  literary,  and  open  to  all. 

Even  among  scientific  writers,  however,  many  of  the  highest 
class  are  free  from  any  considerable  difficulties  in  this  respect, 
and  have  taken  a  place  in  general  literature.  The  great  phi- 
losophers of  Greece  and  Rome,  as  well  as  those  of  modern 
limes,  belong  no  less  to  literature  than  to  philosophy;  and  at 
the  present  day  there  is  an  increasing  number  of  those  writers 
on  science  who  address  themselves,  not  to  a  circle  of  scientific 
readers,  but  to  the  world. 

§  498.    CLASSIFICATION    OF    EXPOSITORY   WRITINGS. 

Expository  writings  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

1.  The  treatise.  This  means  the  full  discussion  of  a  subject. 
The  most  familiar  examples  of  this  are  to  be  found  in  the  works 
of  the  great  philosophers  of  ancient  and  modern  times — Plato, 
Aristotle,  Cicero,  Bacon,  Locke,  Hume,  etc.  The  writings  of 
these,  and  others  like  them,  have  taken  a  place  as  classics  in 
general  literature. 

2.  The  essay.  This  is  a  shorter  exposition  of  a  subject,  and 
is  generally  confined  to  one  aspect  of  it.  Cicero's  De  Senec- 
tute  and  De  Amicitia  are  familiar  examples.  Of  this  character 
are  the  essays  of  Bacon,  Addison,  Steele,  Johnson,  Macaulay, 
De  Quincey,  and  others.  The  essay  often  exhibits  masterly 
exposition,  joined  with  consummate  ability  and  finished  style. 

3.  The  epistle.  This  was  formerly  a  favorite  mode  of  com- 
position. The  most  famous  are  those  of  Cicero,  Pliny,  Madame 
de  Sdvign^,  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montague,  Pope,  Cowper.  At 
the  present  day  this  form  of  writing  has  lost  its  importance  in 
a  literary  sense. 

4.  The  editorial  article.  This  is  the  production  of  an  age 
of  newspapers.  The  necessity  of  the  case  compels  it  to  be 
of  restricted  length.  At  its  best,  it  is  a  concise  and  vigorous 
treatment  of  some  one  aspect  of  a  subject.  It  bears  the 
same  relation  to  an  essay  which  is  borne  by  an  essay  to  a 
treatise. 

5.  The  paragraph.  This  is  a  short  exposition  of  some  indi- 
vidual point  on  a  subject  of  interest.  It  has  been  greatly  en- 
larged in  importance  by  the  newspaper,  and  bears  the  same 
relation  to  the  editorial_whi^h  the  latter  bears  to  an  essay. 


Oratory.  469 

6.  Poetry.  Poetry  which  deals  in  exposition  is  commonly 
called  didactic,  and  sometimes  philosophic. 

Lucretius's  De  Rerum  Natura  is  philosophic  in  its  charac- 
ter. Horace's  De  Arte  Poetica  is  concerned  with  rhetoric.  In 
English  poetry  the  chief  examples  are  Pope's  poetical  essays 
and  epistles;  Young's  Night  Thoughts;  Darwin's  Botanic  Gar- 
den ;  Thomson's  Seasons;  Cowper's  Task ;  Wordsworth's  Ex- 
cursion ;  Browning's  Christmas,  Easter,  and  Bishop  Biougram's 
Apology. 

Exposition  is  seen  in  lyric  poetry  also,  as  in  some  of  the 
sonnets  of  Milton,  e.g.^  "  When  I  consider  how  my  life  is  spent ;" 
and  in  many  hymns,  as,  for  example,  Cowper's  "  God  moves 
in  a  mysterious  way;"  Montgomery's  "  Prayer  is  the  soul's  sin- 
cere desire." 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ORATORY. 

§  499.    ORATORY. 

According  to  Aristotle  the  divisions  of  oratory  are  threefold, 
and  his  classification  may  be.taken  as  sufficiently  complete  : 

I.  Deliberative.     2.  Judicial.     3.  Demonstrative. 

Deliberative  oratory  is  sometimes  styled  political,  as  it  pre- 
vails chiefly  in  parliamentary  bodies.  Judicial  is  also  called 
forensic,  and  prevails  in  courts  of  law.  Demonstrative  is  also 
styled  moral,  as  it  has  to  do  with  human  motives  and  actions. 

Aristotle  is  very  full  in  his  treatment  of  these  divisions  of 
oratory.  According  to  him  the  subjects  of  deliberative  oratory 
are  war,  supplies,  finance,  etc.,  in  view  of  which  he  shows  the 
necessity  of  extensive  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  orator  of 
such  things  as  history,  geography,  the  resources  of  nations,  and 
of  whatever  else  may  conduce  to  an  enlightened  opinion  on 
political  matters.  He  shows  that  the  principles  from  which 
proofs  are  to  be  drawn  are  the  common  opinions  of  what  is 
good  and  evil,  and  that  the  aim  of  the  orator  is  to  persuade  to 
the  one  and  dissuade  from  the  other. 


470  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  subject  of  judicial  oratory  he  shows  to  be  accusation  and 
defence  ;  the  proof  that  an  injury  has  been  done,  or  its  disproof. 
He  gives  an  analysis  of  injury,  motive,  artificial  and  inartificial 
proofs. 

The  subject  of  demonstrative  oratory  he  shows  to  be  praise 
and  blame;  the  arguments  for  which  are  to  be  drawn  from  the, 
elements  of  the  honorable  or  the  dishonorable. 

The  examination  of  Aristotle  extends  into  subjects  which  at 
the  present  day  would  not  be  touched  upon  in  a  treatise  on 
rhetoric,  but  relegated  to  the  moral  philosopher,  the  historian, 
the  political  economist,  or  other  specialists.  According  to  his 
definition,  rhetoric  has  to  do  with  every  subject ;  but  it  does  not 
therefore  follow  that  the  rhetorician  should  discuss  all  subjects, 
for  that  would  be  to  make  a  treatise  on  rhetoric  an  encyclopae- 
dic work  on  every  possible  branch  of  human  knowledge. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  his  statements  as  to  the  three 
divisions  of  oratory: 

The  business  of  each  : 

1.  Deliberative;  exhortation  and  dissuasion. 

2.  Judicial;  accusation  and  defence. 

3.  Demonstrative ;  praise  and  blame. 
The  time  proper  to  each  : 

1.  Deliberative ;  the  future,  for  in  exhortation  or  dissuasion 
the  speaker  advises  respecting  things  future. 

2.  Judicial;  the  past,  for  here  the  subject  consists  of  actions 
already  performed. 

3.  Demonstrative  ;  the  present,  for  here  the  subject  is  one 
which  is  actually  before  the  audience  for  present  discus- 
sion. 

The  objects  of  each  : 

1.  Deliberative;  the  expedient  or  inexpedient. 

2.  Judicial;  justice  or  injustice. 

3.  Demonstrative;  right  and  wrong,  true  and  false,  in  the 
subject-matter,  which  may  be  science,  philosophy,  re- 
ligion, or  any  other  branch  of  human  knowledge. 

Oratory  employs  different  kinds  of  composition,  such  as  ex- 
position, description,  narration,  dialogue,  and  approximates  to 
the  fervor  and  imaginative  richness  of  poetry. 

Oratory  also  makes  use  of  all  the  resources  of  rhetoric.  Of 
all  the  embellishments  of  style  or  the  forces  of  argument,  of  all 


Oratory.  47 1 

the  modes  of  expression  that  may  influence  the  taste  or  sway 
the  passions,  it  leaves  not  one  unemployed.  In  boldness  of 
figurative  expression,  in  richness  of  imagery,  in  the  strain  which 
it  imposes  upon  the  utmost  capacity  of  language,  it  surpasses 
all  other  prose,  and  frequently  rivals  even  poetry  itself. 

§   500.    DEBATE. 

This  may  be  defined  as  compound  oratory. 

Oratory  is  the  discussion  of  a  subject  by  one;  debate  is  the 
discussion  of  a  subject  by  more  than  one. 

Oratory  considers  the  subject  from  one  point  of  view;  debate 
considers  the  subject  from  two  or  more  opposed  points  of  view. 

There  are  two  classes  of  debate  : 

I.  Controversial.     2.  Parliamentary. 

§  501.    CONTROVERSIAL   DEBATE. 

I.  This  is  the  most  ancient  form  of  debate  of  which  there 
are  any  remains.  It  is  found  in  the  Book  of  Job,  which  some 
consider  the  oldest  book  in  existence.  Plato's  writings  give 
other  examples,  of  which  the  Gorgias  may  be  mentioned  in  par- 
ticular. During  the  revival  of  learning  it  was  a  favorite  form 
of  debate,  and  was  fostered  by  university  life  and  tradition.  The 
"Admirable  Crichton"  is  a  type  of  the  accomplished  debater 
of  that  age ;  in  him  we  see  an  eminent  scholar  and  disputant 
making  the  tour  of  the  universities  of  Europe,  and  conducting 
arguments  on  scholastic  subjects.  The  controversy  between 
Luther  and  Eck  is  more  famous  than  any  other,  since  it  was 
the  turning-point  in  the  great  movement  of  the  German  Refor- 
mation. In  recent  times  the  taste  for  this  has  greatly  lessened; 
yet  it  still  exists,  but  such  debates  when  now  carried  on  are 
chiefly  of  a  religious  character.  The  controversy  between 
Pope  and  Maguire  is  an  example,  but  this  has  become  famous 
chiefly  from  the  witty  satire,  "  Father  Tom  and  the  Pope."  In 
many  a  quiet  village  the  champions  of  opposite  faiths  still  meet, 
and  combat  in  defence  of  their  respective  creeds.  Religion,  tem- 
perance, politics,  are,  next  to  religion,  the  most  common  themes. 

Controversial  writing  is  written  debate,  and  has  no  connec- 
tion with  oratory.  It  has  existed  in  ancient  and  modern  times. 
Of  ancient  controversy,  the  work  of  Josephus  against  Apion, 
and  the  works  of  the  Christian  Apologists,  are  the  most  mem- 


472  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

orable  examples.  During  the  revival  of  learning  controversy 
flourished,  and  lasted  until  the  time  of  the  Parliamentary  wars. 
That  was  the  age  of  ponderous  tomes,  which,  however,  in  the 
stormy  period  of  the  war  between  king  and  Parliament,  was 
quickly  succeeded  by  an  age  of  controversial  pamphlets.  Our 
own  age  confines  controversy  to  newspapers  and  periodicals; 
yet  books  are  still  composed,  such  as  Dr.  Newman's  Apologia, 
aiul  the  literature  that  rose  up  round  the  Colenso  controversy. 
Controversy  still  flourishes,  and  must  continue  to  do  so 
while  the  human  mind  is  active  and  energetic.  Science  affords 
as  great  a  field  for  this  as  religion ;  and  the  disputes  that  rage 
about  the  one  are  as  eager,  as  bitter,  and  as  uncompromising 
as  those  of  the  other.  In  politics  is  found  the  most  familiar 
sphere  of  controversy,  for  every  country  has  its  political  parties, 
who  contend  through  the  medium  of  the  press.  These  show 
that  the  odium  theologicum  which  was  once  supposed  peculiar 
to  religion,  is  merely  that  odium  which  belongs  to  human  nat- 
ure, and  is  felt  against  all  who  differ  in  opinion  on  any  point 
from  ourselves. 

§  502.    PARLIAMENTARY   DEBATE. 

2.  This  has  grown  up  in  the  free  representative  assemblies  of 
the  English-speaking  race,  and  has  been  developed  by  them  to 
its  present  state.  For  ordinary  purposes  it  has  altogether  sup- 
planted the  controversial  debate,  since  it  is  far  broader  in  its 
scope  and  more  thorough  in  its  treatment  of  the  subject. 

The  peculiarity  of  parliamentary  debate  is  that  the  subject 
to  be  examined  is  presented  in  a  formal  statement,  called  a  res- 
olution, or  question,  to  which  alone  the  discussion  must  refer. 

The  principle  of  parliamentary  debate  is  as  old  as  the  hu- 
man race ;  and  Milton  would  have  it  older  still,  since  he  carries 
it  back  to  the  fallen  angels  in  Pandemonium.  Homer  intro- 
duces us  to  the  debates  of  the  Grecian  chiefs  before  Troy ;  but 
these  are  irregular  and  unsystematic.  The  debates  at  Athens 
and  Rome  were  probably  of  the  same  kind.  The  form  of  par- 
liamentary debate  is  modern.  It  was  created  and  developed 
in  England.  It  was  born  in  the  English  Parliament,  and  has 
spread  thence  to  other  parliaments,  and  also  to  other  public 
assemblies  which  have  no  connection  with  politics.  So  useful 
is  it  that  it  is  employed  even  where  there  is  no  debate  proper. 


Oratory.  473 

but  only  discussion ;  where  speakers  agree  upon  the  question, 
and  consider  it,  not  from  contrary,  but  from  different  points  of 
view.  This  is  illustrated  by  the  "  speeches  to  the  question  "  at 
the  meeting  of  any  society. 

The  aim  of  parliamentary  debate  is  to  investigate  the  sub- 
ject from  many  points  of  view  which  are  presented  from  two 
contrary  sides.  In  no  other  way  can  a  subject  be  so  exhaust- 
ively considered. 

Free  debate  may  be  called  the  greatest  blessing  which  a 
nation  can  enjoy,  for  in  this  way  it  can  best  win  and  maintain 
its  liberties. 

A  parliamentary  debate,  when  carried  on  by  able  men,  is  one 
of  the  finest  exhibitions  of  the  powers  of  the  human  mind  that 
can  be  witnessed.  We  see  well-informed  and  well-trained  in- 
tellects turning  all  their  powers  to  the  discussion  of  a  subject 
from  many  points  of  view,  in  which  two  opposite  forces  struggle 
for  the  victory.  In  such  a  struggle  all  the  highest  intellectual 
forces  are  put  forth.  We  encounter  broad  and  deep  knowl- 
edge, quick  apprehension,  argumentative  power,  great  com- 
mand of  language,  together  with  all  the  resources  of  wit,  hu- 
mor, and  pathos;  the  sharpness  of  epigrammatic  statement, 
the  vehemence  of  denunciation,  the  keenness  of  the  quick  re- 
tort, sharp  repartee,  or  biting  sarcasm. 

Debate  is  of  more  importance  than  formerly,  since  there  is  a 
larger  audience.  This  is  the  result  of  a  free  Parliament  and 
press.  The  members  of  Parliament  represent  the  people  to 
discuss;  but  the  reporters  of  the  press  represent  the  people 
to  listen.  Thus  the  whole  nation  is  present  to  debate  and  to 
hearken  by  proxy. 

Reporting,  like  parliamentary  debate  itself,  has  grown  but 
slowly.  At  first  the  reports  of  debates  were  only  general. 
Samuel  Johnson  is  a  type  of  the  reporter  of  his  age.  He  used 
to  listen,  and  write  out  from  memory;  with  this  peculiar  cir- 
cumstance, that  he  reconstructed  the  speeches  in  his  own  style. 
The  next  stage  was  verbatim  short-hand  reporting,  which  now 
exists.  The  two  stages  are  seen  in  the  speeches  of  Chatham. 
His  reply  to  Walpole  was  written  by  Johnson  in  Johnsonian 
antitheses;  his  famous  speech  on  a  motion  for  an  address  to 
the  throne  was  taken  down  by  Hugh  Boyd,  Esq.,  and  revised  by 
the  orator  himself.    It  bears  all  the  marks  of  a  verbatim  report. 


474  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE   TACTICS    OF   ORATORY. 
§  503.    TACTICS   OF   ORATORY. 

The  tactics  of  oratory  may  be  defined  as  special  devices 
employed  by  orators  for  the  sake  of  persuading  their  hearers. 
They  include  all  the  different  means  which  have  been  invented 
for  making  opinions  acceptable,  encountering  opposition,  and 
influencing  feeling.  Some  of  these  are  of  high  importance; 
others  are  exhibitions  of  mere  artifice,  and,  though  once  used 
with  success  by  great  orators,  and  pre-eminently  by  Cicero,  are 
now  considered  as  too  rhetorical  and  disingenuous  for  modern 
taste. 

Some  of  the  ancient  rhetoricians  set  down  all  these  as  regu- 
lar figures,  calling  them  "  figures  of  argument,"  or  "  figures  of 
oratory;"  but  according  to  the  definition  here  adopted  this 
term  is  not  applicable  to  them.  In  the  enumeration  which 
follows,  most  of  the  ancient  names  are  given,  not  because  they 
have  any  practical  utility  at  the  present  day,  but  rather  on 
account  of  their  interest  and  value  from  an  historical  point  of 
view. 

The  present  subject  includes  the  following : 

I.  Conciliation  ;  2.  Emphasis ;  3.  Explanation  ;  4.  Answers 
to  objections ;  5.  Artifices ;  6.  Attack  ;  7.  Defence ;  8.  Dis- 
play of  feeling. 

§  504.   CONCILIATION. 

I.  Among  the  tactics  of  oratory,  none  are  more  important  or 
more  widely  employed  than  a  conciliatory  style  and  demeanor. 
For  persuasion  can  best  be  effected  over  those  who  are  dis- 
posed to  regard  the  speaker  with  kindly  feelings,  and  who  are 
inclined  to  give  to  his  arguments  the  most  friendly  considera- 
tion. 


The  Tactics  of  Oratory.  475 

.      §   505.    SELF-DEPRECIATION. 

Conciliation  is  exhibited  in  the  first  place  by  a  modest  self- 
depreciation.  Arrogance,  self-conceit,  self-assertion,  and  the 
like,  are  always  offensive  and  irritating;  but  self-depreciation 
is  grateful,  because  it  implies  the  superiority  of  the  audience, 
and  is,  in  fact,  a  species  of  subtle  flattery. 

The  following  is  an  example  from  Erskine's  speech  in  behalf 
of  Lord  George  Gordon  : 

"  Gentlemen,  I  feel  entitled  to  expect  both  from  you  and  the  court  the 
greatest  indulgence  and  attention.  I  am  indeed  a  greater  object  of  your 
compassion  than  even  my  noble  friend  whom  I  am  defending.  He  rests 
secure  in  conscious  innocence  and  in  well-placed  confidence  that  it  can  suffer 
no  stain  in  your  hands.  Not  so  with  me.  I  stand  before  you  a  troubled 
and,  I  am  afraid,  a  guilty  man,  in  having  presumed  to  accept  the  awful  task 
which  I  am  now  called  upon  to  perform — a  task  which  my  learned  friend 
who  spoke  before  me,  though  he  has  justly  risen  by  extraordinary  capacity 
and  experience  to  the  highest  rank  in  his  profession,  has  spoken  of  with  that 
distrust  and  diffidence  which  becomes  every  Christian  in  a  cause  of  blood. 
If  Mr.  Kenyon  has  such  feelings,  what  must  mine  be  !  Alas,  gentlemen, 
who  am  I?  A  young  man  of  little  experience,  unused  to  the  bar  of  crimi- 
nal courts,  and  sinking  under  the  dreadful  consciousness  of  my  defects.  I 
have,  however,  this  consolation,  that  no  ignorance  nor  inattention  on  my 
part  can  possibly  prevent  you  from  seeing,  under  the  direction  of  the  judges, 
that  the  crown  has  established  no  case  of  treason." 

A  milder  kind  of  self-depreciation  is  very  common,  and  leads 
to  such  phrases  as,  "  my  humble  self,"  "  my  feeble  powers," 
"with  what  little  ability  I  possess." 

Such  phrases  as  these  are  the  simple  promptings  of  good 
taste  and  right  feeling.     The  following  is  an  example : 

"  When  he  brought  it  forward  first  in  a  time  of  war  and  calamity,  I  gave 
to  the  proposition  my  feeble  support." — Fox. 

§   506.    COMPLIMENT   OR    PRAISE. 

Another  and  similar  form  of  conciliation  is  found  in  compli- 
ment or  praise  directed  to  the  adversary  or  the  hearers.  What 
was  only  implied  in  the  previous  one  is  now  more  directly 
stated  : 

"  Happy  indeed  is  it  for  this  country  that,  whatever  interested  divisions 
may  characterize  other  places,  they  never  enter  these  walls  to  disturb  the 
administration  of  justice.  .  .  .  If  this  be  the  character  even  of  the  bar  of  an 

X 


47^  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

English  court  of  justice,  what  sacred  impartiality  may  not  every  man  expect 
from  its  jurors  and  its  bench." — Erskine  for  St<x:kd\le. 

In  this,  as  also  in  the  following  passage,  the  praise  is  applied 
to  the  judges,  and  attributes  to  them  that  quality  which  they 
would  be  most  inclined  to  claim  as  their  characteristic. 

"  But  be  that  as  it  may,  gentlemen,  he  now  comes  before  you  perfectly 
satisfied  that  an  English  jury  is  the  most  refreshing  prospect  that  the  eye 
of  accused  innocence  ever  met  in  a  human  tribunal." — Mackintosh  for 
Peltier- 

In  the  following  passage  the  praise  is  applied  to  the  adver- 
sary : 

"  One  noble  lord  there  is  whose  judgment  we  are  called  pn  implicitly  to 
trust,  and  who  expressed  himself  with  much  indignation,  and  yet  with  en- 
tire honesty  of  purpose,  against  this  measure.  No  man  is  in  my  opinion 
more  single-hearted,  no  man  more  incorruptible." — Brougham  on  Re- 
form. 

This  language  of  praise  may  be  as  strong  and  as  sincere  as 
possible,  and  sometimes  the  speaker  gives  to  it  an  additional 
force  by  asserting  his  own  implicit  belief  in  the  truth  of  his 
words. 

"Is  this  a  reality,  or  is  your  Christianity  a  romance.'  is  your  profession 
a  dream  }  No,  I  am  sure  that  your  Christianity  is  not  a  romance,  and  I  am 
equally  sure  that  your  profession  is  not  a  dream.  It  is  because  I  believe 
this  that  I  appeal  to  you  with  confidence,  and  that  I  have  faith  and  hope  in 
the  future." — ^John  Bright. 

§  507.   THANKS. 

Sometimes  it  assumes  the  form  of  thanks  for  benefits  which 
have  arisen  from  motives  of  high  virtue  and  generosity :  as — 

"  I  would  thank  you,  gentlemen,  for  the  generous  sympathy  with  which  in 
my  undeserving  person  you  have  honored  the  bleeding,  the  oppressed,  but 
TiO\  broken  Hungary.  I  would  thank  you  for  the  ray  of  hope  which  the 
sympathy  of  the  English  people  casts  on  the  night  of  our  fate." — Kossuth. 

§  508.   CONCESSION. 

Concessions  are  very  often  used  with  good  effect.  By  these 
the  speaker  admits  to  a  certain  extent  the  arguments  of  his 
opponent,  but  the  admission  is  only  made  in  order  that  he  may 
bring  forward  his  own  with  greater  force.     While  they  thus 


The   Tactics  of  Oratory.  477 

tend  in  general  towards  conciliation,  they  serve  to  bring  out  the 
speaker's  arguments  in  stronger  relief: 

"  Well,  if  you  go  to  war  now  you  will  have  more  banners  to  decorate  your 
cathedrals  and  your  churches.  You  may  raise  up  great  generals  ;  you  may 
have  another  Wellington  and  another  Nelson  too,  for  this  country  can  grow 
men  capable  for  every  enterprise.  Then  there  may  be  titles  and  pensions, 
and  marble  monuments  to  eternize  the  men  who  have  thus  become  great ; 
but  what  becomes  of  you,  and  your  country,  and  your  children  ?" — ^John 
Bright. 

The  last  clause,  which  contains  the  point  of  the  argument, 
receives  additional  force  from  the  previous  concession. 

"But,  sir,  let  us  admit  the  fact  and  the  whole  force  of  the  argument — I 
ask,  whose  is  the  fault  ?  Who  has  been  a  member  for  many  years  past, 
and  seen  the  defenceless  state  of  his  country  even  near  him,  under  his  own 
eyes,  without  a  single  endeavor  to  remedy  so  serious  an  evil  V — John  C. 
Calhoun. 

The  concession  which  is  here  made  is  immediately  followed 
by  a  vigorous  retort. 

§  509.    CONFESSION. 

Sometimes  the  concession  is  more  strongly  put  forward  and 
assumes  the  character  of  a  confession,  as  in  the  following  ex- 
amples : 

*•  I  feel  in  the  strongest  manner  how  very  formidable  an  adversary  I  have 
to  encounter  in  the  right  honorable  gentleman  opposite — formidable  from 
his  talents,  formidable  from  the  influence  of  his  situation ;  but  still  more 
formidable  from  having  once  been  friendly  to  the  cause,  and,  becoming  its 
determined  opponent,  drawing  off  others  from  the  standard." — Lord  Grey. 

In  this,  as  in  the  following,  there  is  the  confession  of  feeling 
or  intention  personal  to  the  speaker. 

"  I  come  forward  on  the  present  occasion,  actuated  solely  by  a  sense  of 
duty,  to  make  a  serious  and  important  motion,  which  I  am  ready  fairly  to 
admit  involves  no  less  a  consideration  than  a  fundamental  change  in  govern- 
ment"—Lord  Grey. 

Confession,  like  concession,  is  made  use  of  as  a  preliminary 
towards  introducing  the  speaker's  own  arguments  with  greater 
force. 


478  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

§  510.    PERMISSION. 

Somewhat  similar  to  this  is  another  device  of  the  orator 
by  which  a  thing  is  left  to  the  decision  or  action  of  others, 
whether  the  judges,  the  audience,  or  the  opponent.  This  is 
called  permission.  The  decision  or  action  which  is  thus  per- 
mitted may  either  agree  or  disagree  with  the  views  of  the 
speaker. 

In  the  following  example  the  speaker  anticipates  a  decision 
in  accordance  with  his  own  sentiments : 

"Tell  me,  then,  if  it  do  not  add  as  much  to  the  perfection  as  to  the  be- 
nevolence of  God  that,  while  it  is  expatiating  over  the  vast  field  of  created 
things,  there  is  not  one  portion  of  the  field  overlooked  by  it." — Dr.  Chal- 
mers. 

In  other  cases  the  speaker  anticipates  a  course  contrary  to 
his  own : 

"  Let  the  house  of  Austria  trust  to  the  Czar.  The  people  of  Hungary 
and  myself,  we  trust  to  God." — Kossuth. 

Sometimes  this  is  done  with  greater  formality  and  emphasis  : 

"  I  grudge  not  to  other  nations  the  share  of  liberty  which  they  may  acquire. 
In  the  name  of  Heaven,  let  them  enjoy  it" — Grattan. 

§  511.    CONSULTATION   WITH   THE   AUDIENCE    (aNACCENOSIS). 

Closely  connected  with  this  is  another  device,  consisting  of 
a  consultation  with  the  audience,  or  confidential  remarks. 

"  I  put  it  to  your  oaths  ;  do  you  think  that  a  blessing  of  that  kind — that 
a  victory  obtained  by  justice  over  bigotry  and  oppression — should  have  a 
stigma  cast  upon  it  by  an  ignominious  sentence  of  men  bold  enough  and 
honest  enough  to  propose  that  measure  ?" — Curran. 

In  this  passage  the  orator  refers  the  question  to  the  jur}',  and 
calls  for  their  decision  upon  it. 

"  Shall  we  try  argument  ?  Sir,  we  have  been  trying  that  for  the  last  ten 
years.  Have  we  anything  new  to  offer  on  the  subject  ?  Nothing." — Pat- 
rick Henry. 

Here  the  orator  appeals  to  his  audience,  but  answers  his  own 
question. 


The  Tactics  of  Oratory,  479 

§  512.    EMPHASIS. 

2.  The  tactics  of  oratory  also  include  the  various  modes  by 
which  emphasis  is  given  to  propositions  or  arguments. 

§  513.  statement  of   the   necessity  of  a  case 
(anangc^um). 
In  the  first  place  great  force  is  given  to  the  advocacy  of 
certain  acts  or  measures  by  urging  their  necessity. 
This  is  illustrated  in  the  following  passages : 

"  We  must  fight — I  repeat  it,  sir — we  must  fight.  An  appeal  to  arms 
and  to  the  God  of  hosts  is  all  that  is  left  us." — Patrick  Henry. 

"  It  is  now  necessary  to  instruct  the  throne  in  the  language  of  truth.  We 
must,  if  possible,  dispel  the  delusion  and  darkness  that  envelop  it,  and  dis- 
play in  its  full  danger  and  true  colors  the  ruin  that  is  brought  to  our  doors." 
— Chatham. 

§    514.  STATEMENT   OF   A   FUTURE   OCCURRENCE   (PROMISSIO). 

Again,  the  assertion  refers  to  some  future  occurrence  which 
is  represented  as  quite  certain,  and  sometimes  inevitable. 

"  Woman,  too,  is  now  an  author ;  and  I  undertake  to  say  that  the  liter- 
ature of  the  next  century  will  be  richer  than  the  classic  epochs  for  that 
cause." — Wendell  Phillips. 

In  this  passage  certain  results  are  represented  as  certain; 
in  the  following  it  is  asserted  that  they  are  inevitable. 

"  Let  them  not  rely  on  their  Czar.  His  hour  will  also  come.  The  mill- 
ions of  Russia  cannot  be  doomed  to  be  nothing  else  than  the  blind  instru- 
ments of  a  single  mortal's  despotic  whims.  Humanity  has  a  nobler  destiny 
than  to  be  the  footstool  to  the  ambition  of  some  families.  The  destiny  of 
mankind  is  freedom,  sir,  and  the  sun  of  freedom  will  rise  over  Russia  also ; 
and  in  the  number  of  liberated  nations  who  will  raise  the  song  of  thanks- 
giving to  God,  not  even  the  Russ  will  fail." — Kossuth. 

§  515.   DWELLING    UPON   A    PROPOSITION    (COMMORATIO). 

Emphasis  is  given  by  dwelling  upon  any  important  proposi- 
tion or  any  single  circumstance. 

"A  proposition  was  made  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States — almost 
the  sole,  the  last,  the  greatest  repository  of  human  hope  and  of  human  free- 
dom— the  representative  of  a  nation  capable  of  bringing  into  the  field  a  mill- 
ion of  bayonets." — Henry  Clay. 


480  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

Here  the  attention  is  made  to  dwell  upon  the  "Congress  of 
the  United  States  "  by  the  mention  of  various  circumstances 
which  the  speaker  affirms  to  be  its  distinguishing  features.  In 
the  following  passage  attention  is  drawn  in  a  similar  manner 
to  the  theme  "society." 

"  Society — the  only  field  where  the  sexes  have  ever  met  on  terms  of  equal- 
ity, the  arena  where  character  is  formed  and  studied,  the  cradle  and  the 
realm  of  public  opinion,  the  crucible  of  ideas,  the  world's  university,  at  once 
a  school  and  a  theatre,  the  spur  and  the  crown  of  ambition,  the  tribunal 
which  unmasks  pretension  and  stamps  real  merit,  the  power  that  gives  gov- 
ernment leave  to  be  and  outruns  the  lazy  Church  in  fixing  the  moral  sense 
of  the  age — who  shall  fully  describe  the  lofty  place  of  this  element  in  the 
history  of  the  last  two  centuries  .>" — Wendell  Phillips. 

§  516.   RAPID   MENTION   (PRiECURSIo). 

On  the  other  hand,  circumstances  may  receive  emphasis  by 
being  mentioned  with  great  rapidity. 

"The  head  is  on  the  block — the  axe  rushes — dumb  lies  the  world;  that 
wild,  yelling  world  with  all  its  madness  is  behind  thee.""— Carlyle. 

In  this  case  the  rapidity  of  the  words  seems  to  arise  from 
the  vehement  emotion  of  the  writer,  which  is  communicated 
to  the  reader. 

§  517.   HOLDING   THE   AUDIENCE   IN   SUSPENSE   (SUSTENTATIO). 

Emphasis  is  often  given  to  a  topic  by  holding  the  mind  in 
suspense,  and  dwelling  upon  something  else  before  introducing 
it. 

•*  What  appearance,  sir,  on  the  page  of  history  would  a  record  like  this 
make  ?  In  the  month  of  January,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour 
1824,  while  all  European  Christendom  beheld  with  cold,  unfeeling  apathy 
the  unexpected  wrongs  and  inexpressible  misery  of  Christian  Greece,  a 
proposition  was  made  in  the  Congress  of  the  United  States — almost  the 
sole,  the  last  repository  of  human  hope  and  of  human  freedom — the  repre- 
sentative of  a  nation  capable  of  bringing  into  the  field  a  million  of  bay- 
onets ;  while  the  freemen  of  that  nation  were  spontaneously  expressing  its 
deep-toned  feeling,  its  fervent  prayer  for  Grecian  success ;  while  the  whole 
continent  was  rising  by  one  simultaneous  motion,  solemnly  and  anxiously 
supplicating  and  invoking  the  aid  of  Heaven  to  spare  Greece  and  to  invig- 
orate her  arms ;  while  temples  and  senate-houses  were  all  resounding  with 
one  burst  of  generous  sympathy  ;  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour — that 
Saviour  alike  of  Christian  Greece  and  of  us — a  proposition  was  offered  in 
the  American  Congress  to  send  a  messenger  to  Greece  to  inquire  into  her 


The  Tactics  of  Oratory.  481 

state  and  condition,  with  an  expression  of  our  good  wishes  and  our  sympa- 
thies— and  it  was  rejected." — Henry  Clay. 

Here  the  point  of  the  passage  lies  in  the  statement  that  the 
bill  was  rejected ;  but  this  being  held  in  suspense  throughout 
the  whole  of  a  long  sentence,  is  at  length  put  forth  with  the 
greatest  possible  force  and  effect. 

A  famous  example  is  found  in  Sheridan's  description  of  the 
horrors  perpetrated  in  Oude,  in  his  speech  against  Warren 
Hastings. 

§  518.    PREPARATION    FOR   WHAT   IS   TO    FOLLOW   (PRiEMUNITIo). 

Sometimes  the  speaker  introduces  statements  in  order  to 
prepare  the  minds  of  his  hearers  for  what  he  is  going  to  say. 
This  is  often  found  in  the  exordium,  and  may  be  illustrated  by 
the  opening  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh's  speech  on  behalf  of 
Jean  Peltier,  where  he  states  that  no  disrespect  is  intended 
towards  the  government  of  France,  but  yet  that  the  accused 
requires  a  faithful,  zealous,  and  fearless  defence. 

It  is  also  used  to  introduce  important  points  with  unusual 
emphasis,  as  in  the  speech  of  Marc  Antony  : 

"  If  you  have  tears,  prepare  to  shed  them  now." 
§  519.   UNEXPECTED  OR  SURPRISING  STATEMENT  (pARADOXUM). 

Great  emphasis  is  sometimes  given  to  any  topic  by  introduc- 
ing it  as  something  unexpected  or  surprising. 

This  is  illustrated  in  the  speech  of  Marc  Antony  : 

"  Look  you  here. 
Here  is  himself,  marred,  as  you  see,  with  traitors !" 

Burke's  description  of  Marie  Antoinette  affords  another  ex- 
ample : 

"  Little  did  I  think  that  such  disasters  could  have  fallen  upon  her  in  a 
nation  of  gallant  men  !" 

The  following  example  is  somewhat  fuller  : 

"  At  the  time  I  departed  for  Massachusetts,  if  there  was  an  impression 
which  I  thought  universal,  it  was  that  at  the  commencement  of  this  session 
an  end  would  be  put  to  this  measure.  .  .  .  With  these  impressions  I  arrive 
in  this  city,  .  .  .  The  scene  opens,  and  I  am  commanded  to  forget  all  my 
recollections,  to  disbelieve  the  evidence  of  my  senses,  to  contradict  what 
I  have  seen  and  felt." — ^Josiah  Quincey. 


482  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

§  520.   REFERENCE   TO    PAST    EVENTS    (aNAMNESIS). 

Reference  is  made  to  the  past  so  as  to  bring  up  old  associa- 
tions, and  thus  give  greater  effect  by  a  contrast,  stated  or  im- 
plied, with  the  present. 

"You  who  have  lived  during  the  period  from  1815  to  1822  may  remem- 
ber that  this  country  was  never  in  a  more  uneasy  position.  The  sufferings 
of  the  working-classes  were  beyond  description;  aiKi  the  difficulties  and 
struggles  and  bankruptcies  of  the  middle*classes  were  such  as  few  persons 
have  a  just  idea  of."— John  Bright. 

The  force  of  the  following  passage  consists  in  the  appeal 
which  is  made  to  the  remembrance  of  the  past : 

*•  That  my  sketch  is  no  fancy  picture  every  one  of  you  know.  Every  one 
of  you  can  glance  back  over  their  own  path,  and  count  many  and  many  a 
one  among  those  who  started  from  the  goal  at  their  side,  with  equal  energy 
and  perhaps  greater  promise,  who  has  found  a  drunkard's  grave  long  before 
this — the  brightness  of  the  bar,  the  ornament  of  the  pulpit,  the  hope,  the 
blessing,  and  stay  of  many  a  family.  You  know,  every  one  of  you  who  has 
reached  middle  life,  how  often  on  your  path  you  set  up  the  warning — 
*  Fallen  before  the  temptations  of  the  streets.'  " — Wendell  Philups. 

§  521.  POSSIBILITY   CONTRASTED  WITH    REALITY  (PROECTHESIS). 

Sometimes  possibility  is  contrasted  with  reality  by  stating 
what  might  have  been  done  and  what  has  been  done. 
This  is  illustrated  in  the  following  passages  : 

"  I  believe  that  if  this  country  seventy  years  ago  had  adopted  the  prin- 
ciple of  non-intervention  in  every  case  in  which  her  interests  were  not  di- 
rectly or  obviously  assailed,  that  she  would  have  been  saved  from  much  of 
the  pauperism  and  brutal  crimes  by  which  our  government  and  people  have 
alike  been  disgraced.  This  country  might  have  been  a  garden  ;  every 
dwelling  might  have  been  of  marble  ;  and  every  person  who  treads  its  soil 
might  have  been  sufficiently  educated.  We  should,  indeed,  have  had  less 
of  military  glory.  We  might  have  had  neither  a  Trafalgar  nor  a  Waterloo; 
but  we  should  have  set  the  high  example  of  a  Christian  nation,  free  in  its 
institutions,  courteous  and  just  in  its  conduct  towards  all  foreign  states,  and 
resting  its  policy  on  the  unchanging  foundation  of  Christian  morality." — 
John  Bright. 

"  Had  I  served  a  weak  or  wicked  master,  and  implicitly  obeyed  his  dic- 
tates, obedience  to  his  commands  might  have  been  my  only  justification. 
But  as  it  has  been  my  good  fortune  to  serve  a  master  who  wants  no  bad 
ministers,  and  woiild  have  hearkened  to  none,  my  defence  must  rest  on  my 
own  conduct" — Sir  Robert  Walpole. 


The  Tactics  of  Oratory.  483 

§  522.    EXPLANATION. 

3.  The  force  of  an  argument  depends  upon  its  clearness, 
and  this  is  greatly  assisted  by  frequent  explanations. 

In  the  following  passage  the  explanation  is  at  once  full  and 
forcible : 

**  The  senator  from  Delaware  calls  this  metaphysical  reasoning  which  he 
cannot  comprehend.  If  by  metaphysical  reasoning  he  means  the  scholastic 
refinement  which  makes  distinctions  without  a  difference,  no  one  can  hold 
it  in  more  utter  contempt  than  I  do ;  but  if,  on  the  contrary,  he  means  the 
power  of  analysis  and  combination — that  power  which  reduces  the  most 
complex  idea  into  its  elements — which  traces  causes  to  their  first  principles, 
and  by  the  power  of  generalization  and  combination  unites  the  whole  in  a 
harmonious  system — then,  so  far  from  deserving  contempt,  it  is  the  highest 
attribute  of  the  human  mind.  It  is  the  power  which  raises  man  above  the 
brute,  or  which  distinguishes  his  faculties  from  mere  sagacity  which  he  holds 
in  common  with  inferior  animals.  It  is  this  power  which  has  raised  the 
astronomer  from  being  a  mere  gazer  at  the  stars  to  the  high  intellectual 
eminence  of  a  Newton  or  a  Laplace,  and  astronomy  itself  from  a  mere  obf 
servation  of  insulated  facts  into  that  noble  science  which  displays  to  our 
admiration  the  system  of  the  universe." — Calhoun. 

§  523.  STATEMENT  OF  THE   REASON    FOR  A  THING  (aITIOLOGIa). 

Another  kind  of  explanation  consists  in  the  statement  of  a 
reason  for  a  thing. 

"  As  Caesar  loved  me,  I  weep  for  him ;  as  he  was  fortunate,  I  rejoice  at 
it ;  as  he  was  valiant,  I  honor  him ;  but,  as  he  was  ambitious,  I  slew  him." 

§   524.   ANSWERS    TO    OBJECTIONS    (aNTERRESIS). 

4.  In  the  course  of  arguments  advocating  any  cause,  it  is 
common  to  reply  to  objections,  and  refute  them,  if  possible. 

The  following  are  examples : 

"The  boy  emperor  of  Austria,  expelled  from  his  most  important  terri- 
tory, has  the  right,  it  is  said,  to  call  in  the  Cossacks  to  cut  the  throats  of 
his  own  subjects.  If  this  be  admitted,  there  is  an  end  to  all  responsibility 
of  governments  to  their  people." — Cobden. 

In  this  passage,  as  in  the  following,  the  objection  is  stated, 
and  met  by  an  instantaneous  refutation. 

"  Another  gentleman  has  said  the  Catholics  have  got  much,  and  ought  to 
be  content.  Why  have  they  got  that  much  ?  Is  it  from  the  minister  ?  Is 
it  from  the  Parliament,  who  threw  their  petition  over  the  bar  ?  No ;  they 
got  it  by  the  great  revolution  of  human  aflfairs,  by  the  astonishing  march 

X    2 


484  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

of  the  human  mind — a  march  that  has  collected  too  much  momentum  in  its 
advance  to  be  now  stopped  in  its  progress." — Curran. 

In  the  following  passage  the  objection  is  answered  with 
great  dexterity  and  fulness  : 

"  The  first  argument  of  the  gentleman  that  I  shall  notice  is  the  unpre- 
pared state  of  the  country.  Whatever  weight  this  argument  might  have  in 
a  question  of  immediate  war,  surely  it  has  little  in  that  of  preparation  for 
it." — Calhoun. 

The  argument  of  weakness  is  thus  disposed  of  by  Patrick 
Henry: 

"They  tell  us,  sir,  that  we  are  weak — but  when  shall  we  be  stronger.?" — 
Patrick  Henry. 

Lord  Chatham  meets  the  objection  of  Lord  Suffolk  with  an 
outburst  of  indignation : 

"  It  is  perfectly  allowable,  says  Lord  Suflfolk,  to  use  all  the  means  which 
God  and  nature  have  put  into  our  hands.  ...  I  am  astonished,  I  am  shocked 
to  hear  such  sentiments  avowed." — Chatham. 

Fox,  in  his  speech  on  the  Russian  Armament,  turns  aside  to 
answer  the  arguments  for  continuing  the  armament,  which  are, 
ist,  that  the  emperor  might  insist  on  better  terms  from  the 
Turks ;  2d,  that  Russia  might  have  insisted  on  harder  terms ; 
3d,  that  the  armament  could  not  be  discontinued  till  the  senti- 
ments of  Prussia  were  known.  These  are  all  answered  with 
that  orator's  usual  vigor  and  completeness. 

§  525.  ANTICIPATION    OF    OBJECTIONS   (PROLEPSIS,   ANTHYPOPH- 

ora). 

Objections  are  often  anticipated  and  answered.  This  case 
differs  from  the  preceding  one  in  this,  that  the  speaker  does 
not  wait  for  the  objections  of  his  opponent,  but  brings  them 
forward  of  his  own  accord,  with  the  express  purpose  of  re- 
plying to  them  by  anticipation. 

This  is  illustrated  in  the  following  passage : 

"  I  am  aware  of  the  difficulties  I  have  to  encounter  in  bringing  forward 
this  business  ;  I  am  aware  how  ungracious  it  would  be  for  this  House  to 
show  that  they  are  not  the  real  representatives  of  the  people  ;  I  am  aware 
that  the  question  has  been  formerly  agitated  on  different  occasions  by  great 
and  able  characters,  who  have  deserted  the  cause  from  despair  of  success  ; 
and  I  am  aware  that  I  must  necessarily  go  into  what  may,  perhaps,  be  sup- 
posed trite  and  worn-out  arguments." — Lord  Grey. 


The  Artifices  of  Oratory.  485 

In  this  case  the  objections  are  all  stated  before  the  reply 
is  given;  in  the  following  each  objection  is  answered  as  it  is 
stated  : 

"Tell  me  not  of  the  honor  of  belonging  to  a  free  country.  I  ask,  does 
our  liberty  bear  generous  fruits?  Does  it  exalt  us  in  manly  spirit,  in  public 
virtue,  above  countries  trodden  under  foot  by  despotism  ?  Tell  me  not  of 
the  extent  of  our  country.  I  care  not  how  large  it  is  if  it  multiply  degener- 
ate men.  Speak  not  of  prosperity.  Better  be  one  of  a  poor  people,  plain 
in  manners,  reverencing  God,  and  respecting  themselves,  than  belong  to  a 
rich  country  which  knows  no  higher  good  than  riches." — VVm.  Ellery 
Channing. 

The  next  example  is  of  a  somewhat  different  kind,  and  an- 
ticipates a  question  rather  than  an  objection  : 

"  And  now,  if  it  be  asked  why,  in  considering  the  true  grandeur  of  na- 
tions, I  dwell  thus  singly  and  exclusively  on  war,  it  is  because  war  is  utterly 
and  irreconcilably  inconsistent  with  true  greatness." — Charles  Sumner. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE  ARTIFICES   OF  ORATORY. 
§  526.    ARTIFICES   OF   ORATORY. 

5.  Many  modes  of  statement  are  devised  by  the  speaker  for 
the  purpose  of  gaining  an  ascendency  over  his  opponent  or 
his  auditors.     These  are  distinguished  by  the  term  artifices. 

§  527.    EXPRESSION    OF    DOUBT   OR    IGNORANCE    (dUBITATIO, 

aporia). 

In  the  first  place,  there  is  that  kind  of  artifice  by  which  the 
speaker  represents  himself  as  in  a  state  of  doubt,  ignorance, 
hesitation,  or  the  like. 

The  expression  of  doubt  or  of  ignorance  is  generally  made 
use  of  in  order  to  introduce  statements  with  greater  emphasis : 

"  I  know  not  how  it  has  happened,  but  it  really  seems  that  while  his 
Grace  was  meditating  his  well-considered  censure  upon  me,  he  fell  into  a 
sort  of  sleep." — Burke. 


486  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

The  following  passage  is  of  a  similar  nature  : 

"  I  really  am  at  a  loss  to  draw  any  sort  of  a  parallel  between  the  public 
merits  of  his  Grace  by  which  he  justifies  the  grants  he  holds,  and  these  ser- 
vices of  mine,  on  the  favorable  construction  of  which  I  have  obtained  what 
his  Grace  so  much  disapproved." — Burke, 

,Here  the  words,  "  I  really  am  at  a  loss,"  etc.,  form  but  a 
more  emphatic  way  of  saying  that  "  no  parallel  can  be  drawn." 

"  The  right  honorable  gentleman  must  have  felt  the  whole  time  while  he 
was  affecting  to  vindicate  the  freedom  of  speech  necessary  at  meetings  of 
Englishmen — he  must  have  felt  that  it  was  not  the  boisterous  festivity  of 
the  East  Retford  assembly  that  has  led  to  these  painful  inquiries ;  but  that 
it  was  the  circumstance  that  a  politician,  and  a  politician  of  a  distinguished 
character,  who  had  held  high  and  responsible  office,  should  have,  while  the 
country  was  interested  in  the  discussion  of  a  great  public  question,  taken 
the  opportunity  of  making  statements  which  were  monstrous  if  they  were 
true  ;  but  if  they  were  not  true  must  be  described  by  an  epithet  which  I  can- 
not find  in  my  own  vocabulary." — Disraeli. 

In  these  last  words  the  hesitation  and  doubt  of  the  speaker 
serve  to  suggest  the  worst  term  possible  to  stigmatize  the  of- 
fence alluded  to. 

§  528.    INTENTIONAL   OMISSION   OF   WORDS   (PARALEIPSIS). 

Closely  associated  with  the  preceding  is  another,  in  which 
by  a  profession  or  simulation  of  silence  the  speaker  will  appear 
to  pass  by  a  thing  while  verbally  mentioning  it,  and  that,  too, 
in  the  most  striking  manner. 

"  Let  me  ask  you  honestly,  what  do  you  feel  when  in  my  hearing,  when  in 
the  face  of  this  audience,  you  are  called  upon  to  give  a  verdict  that  every 
man  of  us  and  every  man  of  you  knows  by  the  testimony  of  his  own  eyes  to 
be  utterly  and  absolutely  false.  I  speak  not  now  of  the  public  proclamation 
of  informers,  with  a  promise  of  secrecy  and  of  extravagant  reward.  I  speak 
not  of  the  fate  of  those  horrid  wretches  who  have  been  so  often  transferred 
from  the  table  to  the  dock,  and  from  the  dock  to  the  pillory.  I  speak  of 
what  your  own  eyes  have  seen  day  after  day." — Curran  for  Finnerty. 

Here  the  speaker,  while  affirminj;  that  he  does  not  speak  of 
certain  things,  is  actually  describing  them,  and  that,  too,  in  the 
most  concise  and  forcible  way, 

**I  pass  over  all  considerations  of  the  written  treasures  of  antiquity  which 
have  survived  the  wreck  of  empires  and  of  dynasties,  of  monumental  tro- 


The  Artifices  of  Oratory.  487 

phies,  of  triumphal  arches,  of  palaces  of  princes  and  temples  of  gods.  I 
pass  over  all  considerations  of  those  admired  compositions  in  which  wisdom 
speaks  as  with  a  voice  from  heaven  ;  of  those  sublime  efforts  of  political 
genius  which  still  freshen  as  they  pass  from  age  to  age  in  undying  vigor  ; 
of  those  finished  histories  which  still  enlighten  and  instruct  governments  in 
their  duty  and  their  destiny ;  of  those  matchless  orations  which  roused  na- 
tions to  arms,  and  chained  senates  to  the  chariot-wheels  of  all-conquering 
eloquence." — Joseph  Story. 

While  thus  declaring  that  he  "  passes  over  "  certain  topics, 
the  writer  is  actually  describing  them  with  fulness  and  effect. 

Similar  to  these  is  another  artifice  by  which  a  statement  is 
apparently  retracted,  as  if  from  reluctance  to  maintain  it : 

"  Suppose  the  Duke  of  Wellington  (we  beg  pardon  for  making  such  a 
supposition,  even  for  the  sake  of  argument)." 

In  this  case  it  will  be  seen  that  the  apparent  retraction  only 
serves  to  give  emphasis  to  the  statement. 

§  529.    WITHDRAWAL   OF   AN    EXPRESSION    (ePANORTHOSIS). 

Again,  an  e.xpression  is  sometimes  withdrawn  for  the  pur- 
pose of  substituting  something  stronger.  This  may  be  seen 
in  the  words  ascribed  to  Apollonius  of  Tyana: 

"  Rejoice,  my  friends,  the  tyrant  dies  this  day  !  This  day,  do  I  say  ?  The 
very  moment  in  which  I  kept  silence  he  suffered  for  his  crimes — he  dies !" 

§  530.    APPARENT   INTENT. 

The  apparent  meaning  is  sometimes  different  from  that 
which  is  implied.     This  artifice  is  called  "apparent  intent." 

This  is  often  associated  with  irony,  as  in  the  following  pas- 
sage from  Junius : 

"You  have  nice  feelings,  my  lord,  if  we  may  judge  by  your  resentments. 
Cautious,  therefore,  of  giving  offence,  I  shall  leave  the  illustration  of  your 
virtues  to  other  hands." 

At  Other  times  it  is  not  connected  with  irony,  but  appears  as 
a  mere  artifice,  used  in  order  to  work  more  effectually  upon  the 
hearers.  Excellent  examples  may  be  found  in  the  speech  of 
Marc  Antony  on  Julius  Caesar: 

"  Yet  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious ; 
And,  sure,  he  is  an  honorable  man. 


488  Eiemefits  of  Rhetoric. 

I  speak  not  to  disprove  what  Brutus  spoke, 
But  here  I  am  to  speak  what  I  do  know. 

O,  masters !  if  I  were  dispos'd  to  stir 

Your  hearts  and  minds  to  mutiny  and  rage, 

I  should  do  Brutus  wrong,  and  Cassius  wrong, 

Who,  you  all  know,  are  honorable  men : 

I  will  not  do  them  wrong ;  I  rather  choose 

To  wrong  the  dead,  to  wrong  myself,  and  you, 

Than  I  will  wrong  such  honorable  men. 

But  here's  a  parchment  with  the  seal  of  Caesar, 

I  found  it  in  his  closet,  'tis  his  will : 

Let  but  the  commons  hear  his  testament, 

(Which,  pardon  me,  I  do  not  mean  to  read). 

And  they  would  go  and  kiss  dead  Caesar's  wounds. 

And  dip  their  napkins  in  his  sacred  blood. 

*Tis  good  you  know  not  that  you  are  his  heirs ; 
For  if  you  should,  O,  what  would  come  of  it !" 

All  this  affords  a  matchless  example  of  pure  artifice  on  the 
part  of  the  orator. 

§  531.   SUPPOSED  CASE. 

Arguments  are  sometimes  presented  in  the  most  vivid  and 
memorable  way  by  an  imaginary  representation  of  facts  as  an 
example  or  illustration.  This  is  called  a  "supposed  case."  It 
may  be  used  in  many  ways,  and  may  give  greater  effect  to 
statements;  or  bring  back  the  past;  or  anticipate  the  future; 
or  allow  the  use  of  language  that  could  not  be  employed  under 
any  other  circumstances. 

The  following  is  from  Burke's  speech  on  Conciliation  with 
America : 

"  My  Lord  Bathurst  might  remember  all  the  stages  of  the  progress  (of  the 
prosperity  of  the  British  empire).  He  was  in  1704  of  an  age  at  least  to  be 
made  to  comprehend  such  things.  Suppose,  sir,  that  the  angel  of  this  au- 
spicious youth  .  .  .  had  ojjened  to  him  in  vision  .  .  .  and  unfolded  the  rising 
glories  of  his  country,  and  while  he  was  then  gazing  in  admiration  on  the 
then  commercial  grandeur  of  England,  the  genius  should  point  out  to  him 
a  little  speck,  scarce  visible  in  the  mass  of  the  national  interest,  and  should 
tell  him — Young  man,  there  is  America,"  etc 

In  this  passage  Burke  makes  use  of  a  supposed  case  to  pre- 
sent the  rapid  progress  of  the  American  colonies  in  a  new  and 
more  impressive  light. 


The  Artifices  of  Oratory.  489 

It  may  also  be  used  as  a  medium  for  the  conve3'ance  of 
charges  that  could  not  very  well  be  slated  in  another  manner. 
Such  charges,  if  put  forward  directly,  might  seem  exaggerated, 
and  sound  like  mere  vituperation;  but  in  this  form  the  greatest 
liberty  is  allowed  to  the  speaker,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
attack,  from  being  a  covert  one,  is  all  the  more  stinging. 

Grattan  opens  his  invective  against  Flood  in  this  way : 

"  It  is  not  the  slander  of  an  evil  tongue  that  can  defame  me  ;  no  man  who 
has  not  a  bad  character  can  ever  say  that  I  deceived ;  no  country  can  call 
me  cheat.  But  I  will  suppose  such  a  public  character  ;  I  will  suppose  such 
a  man  to  have  existence ;  I  will  begin  with  his  character  in  its  political 
cradle,  and  I  will  follow  him  to  the  last  state  of  political  dissolution." 

Then  follows  the  elaborate  portrayal  of  a  character  designed 
to  represent  Flood,  but  which,  being  put  forth  as  a  supposed 
case,  is  described  with  an  exaggerated  bitterness  that  would 
not  have  been  allowed  in  direct  statement. 

The  famous  letter  of  Junius  to  the  King  is  based  upon  this. 
It  is  addressed  to  the  printer  of  the  Public  Advertiser,  and  a 
few  introductory  sentences  are  taken  up  with  a  supposed  case : 

"There  is  a  moment  of  difficulty  and  danger  at  which  flattery  and  false- 
hood can  no  longer  deceive,  and  simplicity  itself  can  no  longer  be  misled. 
Let  us  suppose  it  arrived.  Let  us  suppose  a  gracious,  well-intentioned 
prince  made  sensible  at  last  of  the  great  duty  he  owes  to  his  people,  and  of 
his  own  disgraceful  situation  ;  that  he  looks  around  him  for  assistance,  and 
asks  for  no  advice  but  how  to  gratify  the  wishes  and  secure  the  happiness 
of  his  subjects.  In  these  circumstances  it  may  be  a  matter  for  curious  spec- 
ulation to  consider,  if  an  honest  man  were  permitted  to  approach  a  king,  in 
what  terms  he  would  address  himself  to  his  sovereign;  . . .  unacquainted  with 
the  vain  impertinence  of  forms,  he  would  deliver  his  sentiments  with  dignity 
and  firmness,  but  not  without  respect  .  .  .  Sir,  it  is  the  misfortune  of  your 
life,"  etc. 

What  follows  is  thus  put  forth,  not  as  the  letter  of  Junius  him- 
self, but  rather  as  the  language  which  might  be  used  by  the 
supposed  "  honest  man."  Had  the  letter  been  directly  written, 
its  keen  sarcasm  and  incisive  utterance  of  unpleasant  truths 
would  have  been  there,  but  the  general  force  would  certainly 
have  been  weakened  by  the  abrupt  insolence  and  virulence  of 
the  writer.  Against  this,  however,  the  introduction  guards. 
The  letter  is  not  from  Junius — it  is  from  an  imaginary  patriot, 
who  is  addressing  the  king  under  purely  imaginary   circum- 


490  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

stances,  and  thus,  amid  all  its  bitterness  and  malignant  force, 
there  is  preserved  at  least  the  show  of  respect. 

The  peroration  of  Fox's  speech  on  the  Rejection  of  Bona- 
parte's Overtures  is  made  up  of  a  supposed  case,  in  which  a 
spectator  is  imagined  to  be  present  at  a  battle-field,  and  ask- 
ing why  they  are  fighting.  This  form  of  statement  is  here 
employed  to  bring  before  the  minds  of  the  hearers  a  vivid 
picture  of  the  horrible  realities  of  war,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
represent  to  them  the  irrational  character  of  the  particular  war 
in  which  they  were  then  engaged. 

A  very  powerful  instance  of  this  may  be  found  in  Curran's 
speech  against  the  Marquis  of  Headfort,  who  had  eloped  with 
the  wife  of  the  Rev.  Charles  Massey  : 

"  O,  how  happy  had  it  been,  when  he  arrived  at  the  bank  of  the  river  with 
the  ill-fated  fugitive,  ere  yet  he  had  committed  her  to  that  boat,  of  which, 
like  the  fabled  bark  of  the  Styx,  the  exile  was  eternal ;  how  happy,  at  that 
moment,  so  teeming  with  misery  and  with  shame,  if  you,  my  lord,  had  met 
him,  and  could  have  accosted  him  in  the  character  of  that  good  genius 
which  had  abandoned  him.  How  impressively  might  you  have  pleaded  the 
cause  of  the  father,  of  the  child,  of  the  mother,  and  even  of  the  worthless 
defendant  himself.  You  would  have  said — Is  this  the  requital  that  you  are 
about  to  make  for  the  respect  and  kindness  and  confidence  in  your  honor  .>" 

Then  follows  a  long,  eloquent,  and  most  pathetic  statement 
of  the  arguments  and  remonstrances  which  might  have  been 
used  in  such  a  case. 

This  supposed  case  is  carried  out  with  great  fulness  and 
effectiveness.  The  orator  uses  it  to  display  in  the  most  strik- 
ing manner  the  villany  and  cruelty  of  the  man,  together  with 
the  treachery  and  mad  infatuation  of  the  woman.  In  no  other 
way  could  so  powerful  a  representation  be  made. 

§   532.    OTHER    FORMS    OF    ARTIFICE. 

The  forms  of  artifice  thus.far  set  forth  comprise  all  that  are 
of  any  value.  In  ancient  oratory  this  subject  was  of  more  im- 
portance than  in  modern,  and  received  an  attention  which  at 
this  day  would  be  deemed  excessive.  The  following  passage 
from  Quintilian  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  mode  of  treatment 
adopted  by  this  author,  while  at  the  same  time  it  will  supply 
all  that  remains  to  be  said  on  this  topic  : 

"  There  are  other  artifices,  too,  which  are  not  only  pleasing,  but  are  of 


Attack  and  Defence.  491 

great  service  in  securing  favorable  attention  to  our  arguments,  as  well  by 
the  variety  which  they  give  as  by  their  own  nature  ;  for  by  making  our 
speech  ajjpear  plain  and  unstudied,  they  render  us  objects  of  less  suspicion 
to  the  judge.  One  of  these  is  a  repenting,  as  it  were,  of  what  we  have  said, 
as  in  the  speech  for  Caelius,  'But  why  did  I  introduce  so  grave  a  charac- 
ter ?'  Of  a  similar  nature,  also,  are  the  expressions  which  we  daily  use, 
such  as,  *  I  have  hit  upon  the  matter  unawares  ;'  or,  as  we  say  when  we 
pretend  to  be  at  a  loss,  '  What  comes  next  ?'  or,  *  Have  I  not  omitted  some- 
thing ?'  or  when  we  pretend  to  find  something  suggested  to  us  by  the  mat- 
ter of  which  we  are  speaking.  Thus  Cicero  says,  '  One  charge  of  this  sort 
remains  for  me  to  notice  ;'  and,  *  One  thing  is  suggested  to  me  by  another.' 
By  such  means  likewise  graceful  transitions  are  effected,  as  Cicero,  after  re- 
lating the  story  of  Piso,  who  had  given  orders,  while  he  was  sitting  on  his 
judgment-seat,  for  a  ring  to  be  made  for  him  by  a  goldsmith,  adds,  as  if  re- 
minded by  the  circumstance,  '  This  ring  of  Piso's  has  just  put  me  in  mind 
of  something  that  had  entirely  escaped  me.  From  how  many  honest  men's 
fingers  do  you  think  that  he  has  taken  away  gold  rings?'  Sometimes  we 
affect  ignorance  of  some  particular,  as,  *  But  the  artificer  of  those  statues — 
whom  did  they  say  it  was }  whom  .-*  You  prompt  me  correctly — they  said  it 
was  Polycletus.'  ...  It  gives  agreeableness  to  a  speech,  moreover,  to  defer 
the  discussion  of  some  points,  laying  them  up,  as  it  were,  in  the  memory  of 
the  judge,  and  afterwards  to  reclaim  what  we  have  deposited ;  to  separate 
certain  particulars  by  some  figure  ;  to  bring  others  prominently  forward  ; 
and  to  exhibit  the  subjects  of  our  speech  under  various  aspects ;  for  elo- 
quence delights  in  variety ;  and  as  the  eyes  are  more  attracted  by  the  con- 
templation of  diversified  objects,  so  that  is  always  more  gratifying  to  the 
mind  to  which  it  directs  itself  with  the  expectation  of  novelty." 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ATTACK    AND    DEFENCE. 


ATTACK    AND    DEFENCE. 

6.  In  attack  and  defence  the  orator  makes  use  of  all  the 
means  of  influencing  the  hearer  which  have  thus  far  been  no- 
ticed; and,  in  addition  to  these,  he  resorts  to  modes  of  treat- 
ment which  are  peculiar  to  these  departments  of  oratory,  and 
deserve  special  consideration. 

§  534.   ATTACK. 

The  leading  quality  here  is  vehemence,  and,  whatever  form 
the  attack  may  assume,  this  quality  will  serve  as  a  great  central 


49-  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

force  to  give  it  a  resistless  impetus,  ^schines  named  this  as 
the  great  characteristic  of  the  oratory  of  Demosthenes.  Lon- 
ginus  afterwards,  speaking  as  a  critic,  gave  the  same  opinion ; 
and  the  best  modern  counterpart  of  this  is  found  in  the  ora- 
tory of  Chatham.  Nowhere  is  this  vehemence  more  impos- 
ingly displayed  than  in  invective.  The  passage  in  which 
Lord  Chatham  denounces  the  Earl  of  Suffolk  is  a  well-known 
example.     It  begins : 

"  I  am  astonished — shocked — to  hear  such  principles  confessed,  to  hear 
them  avowed  in  this  House  or  in  this  country ;  principles  equally  unconsti- 
tutional, inhuman,  and  unchristian." 

Vehemence  is  also  essential  in  all  cases  of  menace. 

Sometimes  the  menace  is  implied,  as  when  Curran,  speaking 
in  behalf  of  Finnerty,  utters  words  in  which  there  is  a  covert 
threat : 

"  Upright  and  honest  jurors,  find  a  civil  and  obliging  verdict  against  the 
printer,  and,  when  you  have  done  so,  march  through  the  ranks  of  your  fel- 
low-citizens to  your  homes,  and  bear  their  looks  as  you  pass  along." 

It  is  also  needed  in  cases  of  defiance,  and  may  be  observed 
in  the  following  from  Grattan's  speech  against  Corry : 

"  Here  I  stand  ready  for  impeachment  or  trial,     I  dare  accusation.     I . 
defy  the  honorable  gentleman.     I  defy  the  government.     I  defy  the  whole 
phalanx.     Let  them  come  forth.     I  tell  the  ministers  I  will  neither  give 
them  quarter  nor  take  it" 

§  535.   PERSONAL   ATTACK. 

The  fiercest  and  most  violent  form  of  attack  is  that  which 
is  directed  against  individuals.  The  object  of  the  assault  being 
a  personal  enemy,  arouses  the  strongest  passions,  and  calls 
forth  the  bitterest  language. 

The  following  attack  was  made  on  Lord  Auckland  by  Fox, 
in  his  speech  on  the  Russian  Armament : 

"  As  there  was  honor  to  be  sacrificed,  a  stain  to  be  fixed  on  the  national 
character,  engagements  to  be  retracted,  and  a  friend  to  be  abandoned,  did 
it  never  occur  to  them  that  there  was  one  man  upon  their  diplomatic  list  who 
would  have  been  pronounced  by  general  acclamation  thoroughly  qualified 
in  soul  and  qualities  for  this  service?  Such  a  person  they  might  have 
found,  and  not  so  occupied  as  to  make  it  inconvenient  for  them  to  employ 
him.  They  would  have  found  him  absent  from  his  station,  under  the  pre- 
tence of  attending  to  his  duty  in  this  House,  though  he  does  not  choose 
often  to  make  his  appearance  here." 


Attack  and  Defence.  493 

Another  example  will  be  found  in  Fox's  speech  on  the  West- 
minster Election,  where  he  denounces  the  high-bailiff  in  lan- 
guage full  of  the  keenest  and  most  stinging  reproof: 

"  There  are  feelings  which  even  party  prejudice  cannot  dispossess  us  of. 
We  owe  to  each  other  a  certain  candor  ;  and  I  am  sure  I  should  be  thor- 
oughly satisfied  to  put  this  matter  to  the  private  answer  of  any  man  who 
hears  me,  if  I  were  only  to  ask  him  upon  his  honor  as  a  gentleman,  whether 
he  really  believes  the  return  of  this  high-bailiff  is  an  act  of  conscience,  and 
whether  he  thinks  that  if  I  stood  in  Sir  Cecil  Wray's  place,  and  he  had  my 
majority,  we  should  ever  have  heard  of  this  man's  difficulty  in  giving  judg- 
ment, or  ever  been  insulted  with  this  mockery  of  his  scruples  ?" 

A  great  effect  is  sometimes  produced  by  a  pretended  repre- 
sentation of  the  words  of  an  adversary  : 

"  Will  the  minister  say,  •  I  travelled  to  Norwich,  to  York,  to  Manchester, 
to  Wakefield,  for  opinions  ;  I  listened  to  the  minority  ;  I  looked  to  Lord 
Stormont,  to  the  Earl  of  Guilford  ;  but  as  to  you,  my  trus»v  majority,  I 
neglected  you  !'  I  had  other  business  for  you  !  It  is  not  your  office  to  give 
opinions  ;  your  business  is  to  confide  !" — Fox,  Russian  Armament. 

Certain  words  are  here  attributed  by  the  orator  to  his  op- 
ponent, and  artfully  introduced  by  the  interrogative  form, 
"Will  the  minister  say?"  The  language  thus  reported  implies 
conduct  which  is  at  once  base  in  itself,  and  treacherous  and 
insulting  to  the  ministerial  supporters. 

§  536.   INCIDENTAL   REFERENCE. 

An  attack  of  the  same  kind  sometimes  assumes  the  form  of 
an  incidental  reference.  Thus  in  the  same  speech  Fox  accuses 
Pilt  of  false  shame  : 

"  The  right  honorable  gentleman  cannot  argue  that  he  kept  up  the  arma- 
ment in  compliance  with  his  engagements  with  Prussia,  when  the  armament 
in  fact  did  not  exist,  and  when  it  had  been  begun  but  four  or  five  days  pre- 
vious to  his  renouncing  the  objects  of  it.  That  could  not  have  been  his 
motive.  What,  then,  was  his  motive  ?  Why,  that  he  was  too  proud  to  own 
his  error,  and  valued  less  the  money  and  tranquillity  of  the  people  than  the 
appearance  of  firmness  when  he  had  renounced  the  reality.  False  shame 
is  the  parent  of  many  crimes.  By  false  shame  a  man  may  be  tempted  to 
commit  a  murder  to  conceal  a  robbery.  Influenced  by  this  false  shame, 
the  ministers  robbed  the  people  of  their  money,  the  seamen  of  their  liberty, 
their  families  of  sujiport  and  protection,  and  all  this  to  conceal  that  they 
had  undertaken  a  system  which  was  not  fit  to  be  pursued." 

Here  the  speaker  charges  his  opponent  with  "  false  shame," 


494  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

and  gives  emphasis  to  the  charge  by  a  minute  statement  of  the 
wrongs  and  evils  resulting  from  it. 

§  537.  SIDE-THRUST. 

A  blow  is  sometimes  aimed  at  an  adversary  in  the  coursa 
of  debate.  Here  there  is  no  sustained  attack,  but  merely  a 
side-thrust  in  passing.  Fox  is  particularly  characterized  by 
this.  The  following  passages  are  from  his  speech  on  the  West- 
minster Scrutiny : 

"This  person,  sir  [Lx)rd  Kenyon],  has  upon  this  day  professed  and  pa- 
raded much  upon  the  impartiality  with  which  he  should  discharge  his  con- 
science in  his  judicial  capacity  as  a  member  of  Parliament  in  my  cause ;  yet 
this  very  person,  insensible  to  the  rank  he  maintains  or  should  maintain 
in  this  country,  abandoning  the  gravity  of  his  character  as  a  member  of  the 
Senate,  and  losing  sight  of  the  sanctity  of  his  station  both  in  the  Mouse  and 
out  of  it,  even  in  ihe  very  act  of  delivering  a  judicial  sentence  descends  to 
minute  and  mean  allusions  to  former  politics — comes  here  stored  with  the 
intrigues  of  past  times,  and,  instead  of  the  venerable  language  of  a  good 
judge  and  a  great  lawyer,  attempts  to  entertain  the  House  by  quoting  or  by 
misquoting  words  supposed  to  have  been  spoken  by  me  in  the  heat  of 
former  debates,  and  in  the  violence  of  contending  parties  when  my  noble 
friend  [Lord  North]  and  I  opposed  each  other." 

In  this  case  the  speaker  turns  aside  from  the  discussion  of 
the  main  argument  to  attack  Lord  Kenyon,  who  had  sneered 
at  him  for  entering  into  friendly  relations  with  an  old  enemy, 
Lord  North.  This  blow  is  at  once  unexpected  and  vigorous. 
Of  the  same  character  is  the  following : 

"  An  honorable  gentleman  whom  I  see  in  his  place,  but  who,  I  believe, 
neither  hears  nor  sees  me  at  this  moment  [Mr.  Jenkinson,  who  was  fast 
asleep  on  the  Treasury  Bench],  knows  full  well  that  all  I  am  sa}'ing  is 
strictly  true.  .  .  .  That  honorable  gentleman  can  attest  the  veracity  of  this 
recital ;  but  it  were  vain  flattery,  I  fear,  to  hope  that  he  will  rise  up  to- 
night and  vindicate  by  his  voice  and  hb  vote  the  principles  of  the  cause 
he  then  supported." 

§  538.    DEFENCE. 

7.  Defence  may  be  characterized  by  all  the  tactics  of  ora- 
tory exhibited  in  attack.  As  a  general  thing,  the  speaker  who 
stands  simply  on  the  defence  employs  more  of  the  language 
of  conciliation  ;  he  is  less  vehement,  but  more  firm;  and  from 
the  nature  of  the  case  he  is  bound  to  be  apologetic,  and  there- 
fore modest.  But  the  best  kind  of  defence  is  that  which,  by 
the  genius  of  the  orator,  is  gradually  made  .to  quit  a  defensive 


Attack  and  Defefice.  495 

position  and  resolve  itself  into  attack ;  in  which  case  it  may 
become  as  vehement  and  as  bitter  as  the  original  aggression 
which  it  is  designed  to  repel. 

§  539.   STRICT   DEFENCE. 

Examples  of  this  may  be  found  in  most  forensic  oratory, 
where  the  advocate  defends  his  client;  and  also  sometimes 
in  deliberative  oratory,  when  a  statesman  defends  his  policy, 
especially  when  a  government  resists  the  attacks  of  the  oppo- 
sition. 

§  540.   INDIRECT   REPLY. 

Sometimes  it  is  necessary  to  make  an  indirect  reply.  An 
example  may  be  found  in  the  speech  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh 
in  behalf  of  Jean  Peltier. 

Jean  Peltier  published  a  French  newspaper  in  London,  in 
which  there  appeared  articles  that  gave  offence  to  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  who  demanded  that  he  should  be  sent  out  of  the 
kingdom,  and,  when  this  was  refused,  insisted  that  he  should 
be  tried  for  libel  on  a  friendly  government.  It  was  felt  that 
the  acquittal  of  Peltier  might  lead  to  war,  and,  since  a  direct 
consideration  of  this  on  a  trial  would  be  considered  injudicious, 
the  reply  was  made  in  an  indirect  way.  The  following  is  a 
brief  summary  of  the  defence  : 

ist.  It  shows  that  the  security  of  Great  Britain   requires 
nothing  on  the  Continent  but  just  dealing  between  dif- 
ferent powers,  and  maintenance  of  peace  so  far  as  pos- 
sible. 
2d.  That  the  prosperity  of  England  depends  upon  the  pros- 

•perity  of  other  nations. 
3d.  A  free  press  is  needed  to  expose  the  ambitious  or  unjust 
designs  of  foreign  rulers,  and  to  forewarn  her  and  forearm 
her  against  them. 
4th.  England  has  always  cherished  this  freedom,  and  never 
thought  it  good  policy  to  avert  the  resentment  of  foreign 
tyrants  by  limiting  the  liberty  of  the  press. 
5th.  Though  valuing  peace,  she  has  never  tried  to  gain  it  by 

silencing  the  press  and  breaking  the  spirit  of  the  people. 
6th.  For  public  spirit  is  the  chief  source  of  national  strength; 
and  of  all  stimulants  which  arouse  it  into  action,  a  free 
press  is  the  greatest. 


^9^  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

In  this  way  an  indirect  reply  is  given  to  the  objection,  always 
present  in  the  minds  of  a  timid  jury,  that  the  acquittal  of  Pel- 
tier might  lead  to  war. 

§  541.   DEFENCE   TURNED    INTO   ATTACK. 

A  more  energetic  and  effective  kind  is  that  in  which  de- 
fence is  turned  into  attack. 

The  greatest  example  of  this  is  found  in  the  oration  of  De- 
mosthenes on  the  Crown.  Here  the  speaker,  who  is  set  upon 
his  own  defence,  conducts  it  in  a  manner  that  has  never  been 
surpassed;  but  the  vindication  of  his  own  life  and  policy  is 
inseparably  connected  with  accusations  against  his  adversary. 
The  same  arguments  which  show  the  one  to  be  a  patriot 
prove  the  other  to  be  a  traitor.  Demosthenes  clears  himself 
of  charges  only  to  fix  them  with  more  damning  effect  upon 
^schines,  whom  he  denounces  as  the  guilty  cause  of  all  the 
calamities  of  Athens. 

The  active  genius  of  Fox  rendered  him  impatient  of  a  defen- 
sive attitude,  and  in  those  speeches  where  this  is  forced  upon 
him  he  is  perpetually  rushing  forth  against  the  enemy,  and  be- 
coming the  assailant  in  turn.  In  the  defence  of  his  East  India 
Bill  he  exemplifies  this  by  the  following  attack  upon  the  com- 
pany and  his  own  assailants  : 

*'  I  am  at  a  loss  to  reconcile  the  conduct  of  men  who  approve  that  re- 
sumption of  violated  trust  [the  deposition  of  King  James  II.]  which  rescued 
and  re-established  our  unparalleled  and  admirable  constitution,  with  a  thou- 
sand valuable  improvements  and  advantages,  at  the  Revolution,  and  who 
at  this  moment  rise  up  the  champions  of  the  East  India  Company's  char- 
ter, although  the  incapacity  and  incompetence  of  that  company  to  a  due 
and  adequate  discharge  of  the  trust  deposited  in  them  by  that  charter  are 
themes  of  ridicule  and  contempt  to  all  the  world  ;  and  although,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  mismanagement,  connivance,  and  imbecility,  combined  with 
the  wickedness  of  their  servants,  the  very  name  of  an  Englishman  is  de- 
tested, even  to  a  proverb,  throughout  all  Asia,  and  the  national  character 
is  become  degraded  and  dishonored." 

While  defending  himself  in  his  speech  on  the  Westminster 
Scrutiny,  he  makes  an  attack  in  the  following  manner: 

"A  noble  lord  [Lord  Mulgrave],  in  his  zeal  to  exculpate  the  high-bailiff, 
charges  me  with  having  intimidated  him,  and  charges  it  upon  the  evidence 
of  Mr.  Grojan.  .  .  .  Grojan  tells  you  that  he  believes  these  threats  some- 
times induced  the  high-bailiflf  to  make  decisions  in  my  favor  contrary  to  his 


((tjitiveesit's 

Attack  and  ^<A^£|g^^ 

judgment.  Yet  this  is  the  man  whose  firmness  and  intre^lWlfilllPiiSWIelord 
commends  so  much,  and  whom  the  government  of  this  country  is  straining 
every  nerve  to  bear  harmless  through  this  unprecedented  business.  An 
officer,  whose  deputy,  as  a  palliation  of  greater  guilt,  defends  by  saying  that 
he  committed  a  palpable  breach  of  duty,  and  only  because  he  is  threatened 
with  legal  punishment  if  he  acts  against  law." 

§  542.   THE   TESTIMONY   OF   AN   ADVERSARY   TURNED   AGAINST 
HIMSELF. 

Nothing  is  more  effective  than  the  employment  of  ilie  testi- 
mony of  an  adversary  against  himself.  This  also  was  largely 
resorted  to  by  Fox,  and  always  urged  with  force  and  success. 

In  his  speech  on  the  Russian  Armament  there  is  the  follow- 
ing passage : 

"  I  hold  it  to  be  now  acknowledged  that  it  was  not  the  public  opinion, 
but  that  of  the  minority  of  this  House,  which  compelled  the  ministers  to 
relinquish  their  ill-advised  projects  ;  for  a  right  honorable  gentleman  who 
spoke  last  night  confessed  the  truth  in  his  own  frank  way.  '  We  certainly,' 
said  he,  'do  not  know  that  the  opinion  of  the  public  was  against  us;  we 
only  know  that  a  great  party  in  this  country  was  against  us,  and  therefore 
we  apprehended  that,  though  one  campaign  might  have  been  got  through 
at  the  beginning  of  the  next  session,  they  would  have  interrupted  us  in  pro- 
curing the  supplies.'  I  believe  I  quote  the  right  honorable  gentleman  cor- 
rectly. And  here,  sir,  let  me  pause  and  thank  him  for  the  praise  which  he 
gives  the  gentlemen  on  this  side  of  the  House — let  me  indulge  the  satisfac- 
tion of  reflecting  that,  though  we  have  not  the  emoluments  of  office  nor  the 
patronage  of  power,  yet  we  are  not  excluded  from  great  influence  on  the 
measures  of  government.  We  take  pride  to  ourselves  at  this  moment  that 
we  are  not  sitting  on  a  committee  of  supply,  voting  enormous  fleets  and 
armies  to  carry  into  execution  this  calanntous  measure.  To  us  he  honestly 
declares  this  credit  to  be  due  ;  and  this  country  will  no  doubt  feel  the  grati- 
tude they  owe  us  for  having  saved  them  from  the  miseries  of  war." 

Dundas  having  admitted  that  the  ministry  desisted  from  the 
Russian  war  through  the  dread  of  the  opposition,  Fox  at  once 
uses  this  admission  against  the  ministry,  and  converts  it  into 
an  acknowledgment  that  the  opposition  had  saved  the  country 
from  war. 

The  following  passage  from  the  same  speech  affords  an  ad- 
ditional illustration  : 

"  He  acknowledges  another  fact,  that  we  are  not  what  another  honorable 
gentleman  chose  to  represent  us — a  faction  that  indiscriminately  approves 
of  everything,  right  or  wrong.  This  is  clearly  manifest  from  his  own  ad- 
mission, for,  giving  up  where  he  found  we  condemned,  he  must  have  begun 
in  the  idea  that  we  should  approve.'' 


498  Elements  of  EJietoric, 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

DISPLAY  OF  FEELING  IN  ORATORY. 
§  543.    DISPLAY    OF  FEELING. 

8.  The  exhibition  of  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  orator  is  of 
immense  assistance  towards  commending  his  arguments  and 
swaying  his  audience.  Passion  is  stronger  than  fluency,  ear- 
nestness is  better  than  rhetoric;  and  when  the  hearers  believe 
that  the  speaker  is  moved,  they  share  his  feelings  by  a  natural 
sympathy.  As  the  subject  of  the  literature  of  the  emotions 
has  been  more  fully  considered  elsewhere,  it  will  only  be  nec- 
essary to  notice  in  this  place  some  of  the  more  striking  displays 
of  feeling  which  may  be  classed  among  the  tactics  of  oratory. 

§  544.    SUDDEN   OUTBURST  OF    FEELING. 

One  of  the  highest  displays  of  emotion  is  seen  in  what  may 
be  called  a  sudden  outburst  of  feeling;  the  most  famous  of 
which  is  to  be  found  in  the  speech  of  Demosthenes  on  the 
Crown.  The  following  is  the  criticism  of  Longinus  on  this 
passage : 

♦'  Demosthenes  is  producing  proofs  of  his  upright  behavior  as  a  public 
servant  Now  what  was  the  most  natural  method  of  doing  this  ?  '  You 
were  not  in  the  wrong,  Athenians,  when  you  bravely  risked  your  lives  in 
fighting  for  the  liberty  and  safety  of  Greece  ;  and  of  this  you  have  domestic 
examples.  For  neither  were  they  in  the  wrong  who  fought  at  Marathon, 
who  fought  at  Salamis,  who  fought  at  Plataea,'  But  when  filled,  as  it  were, 
with  sudden  inspiration  of  the  Deity,  and  like  one  possessed  he  thunders 
out  that  oath — by  the  champions  of  Greece :  *  You  were  not  in  the  wrong,  no, 
you  could  not  be  ;  I  swear  by  those  that  risked  their  lives  for  their  country 
on  the  field  of  Marathon' — he  seems  by  this  one  figure  of  swearing  to  have 
enrolled  their  ancestors  among  the  gods,  while  suggesting  to  them  that  thev 
ought  to  swear  by  those  who  fell  so  gloriously  as  by  so  many  gods  ;  to  have 
inspired  his  judges  with  the  exalted  sentiments  of  those  devoted  patriots ; 
to  have  changed,  what  was  naturally  a  proof,  into  an  appeal  transcendently 
sublime  and  affecting,  aided  by  the  powerful  evidence  of  oaths  of  a  novel 
and  most  sublime  character  ;  and  at  the  same  time  to  have  instilled  a  balm 


Display  of  Feeling  in  Oratory.  499 

into  their  minds  which  heals  every  painful  reflection  and  assuages  the 
smart  of  misfortune ;  so  that,  inspirited  by  his  encomiums,  they  begin  to 
think  with  no  less  pride  of  the  engagement  with  Philip  than  of  the  trophies 
earned  at  Marathon  and  Salamis." 

Such  outbursts  of  feeling  are  not  infrequent  in  the  speeches 
of  Erskine.  Thus,  while  speaking  in  behalf  of  Lord  George 
Gordon,  he  seems  in  one  place  to  lose  all  self-control,  and 
exclaims : 

"  I  say,  by  God !  that  man  is  a  ruffian  who  shall  after  this  presume  to 
build  upon  such  honest,  artless  conduct  as  an  evidence  of  guilt." 

Again,  in  the  same  orator's  speech  in  behalf  of  Hardy,  full 
of  impatience  at  the  nature  of  the  evidence  brought  against  his 
client,  he  says : 

*•  The  unfortunate  man  whose  innocence  I  am  defending  is  arraigned  be- 
fore you  of  high-treason  upon  evidence  not  only  wholly  repugnant  to  this 
particular  statute,  but  such  as  never  yet  was  heard  of  in  England  upon  any 
capital  trial,  .  .  .  which  has  filled  my  mind  with  unremitting  distress  and 
agitation,  and  which,  from  its  discordant,  unconnected  nature,  has  suffered 
me  to  reap  no  advantage  from  the  indulgence  which  I  began  by  thanking 
you  for ;  but  which,  on  the  contrary,  has  almost  set  my  brain  on  fire  with 
the  vain  endeavor  of  collecting  my  thoughts  upon  a  subject  never  designed 
for  any  rational  course  of  thinking." 

In  both  of  these  examples  we  see  how  the  orator  strives  by 
means  of  passionate  affirmation  to  give  additional  force  to  his 
arguments.  In  the  first  instance  he  contends  that  the  de- 
meanor of  the  prisoner  is  no  proof  of  his  guilt;  in  the  sec- 
ond, that  the  evidence  brought  against  his  client  is  unfair. 
To  each  of  these  he  gives  the  greatest  possible  emphasis  by 
the  vehemence  of  his  declarations. 

Another  example  occurs  in  the  same  speech  : 

"  The  question  must  return  at  last  to  what  you,  and  you  only,  can  resolve. 
Is  he  guilty  of  that  base  and  detestable  intention  to  destroy  the  king  ?  .  .  . 
If  you  can  say  this  upon  the  evidence,  it  is  your  duty  to  say  so,  and  you 
may  with  a  tranquil  conscience  return  to  your  families ;  though  by  your 
judgment  the  unhappy  object  of  it  must  no  more  return  to  his.  Alas ! 
gentlemen,  what  do  I  say  !  He  has  no  family  to  return  to.  The  affectionate 
partner  of  his  life  has  already  fallen  a  victim  to  the  surprise  and  horror 
which  attends  the  scene  now  transacting.  But  let  that  melancholy  reflec- 
tion pass." 

Here  the  display  of  feeling  consists  of  a  sudden  outburst  of 

Y 


50O  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

sympathy  for  the  accused,  accompanied  by  a  brief  statement 
of  his  most  piteous  condition. 

§  545.    EXTRAVAGANCE   OF   EXPRESSION. 

Extravagance  of  expression  is  freely  indulged  in  by  orators 
when  under  the  influence  of  strong  emotion,  and  the  statement 
which  in  ordinary  composition  would  seem  exaggerated,  and 
therefore  absurd,  becomes  most  effective  as  a  sign  of  the  pas- 
sion of  the  speaker.  Thus  Sir  James  Mackintosh,  in  behalf 
of  Peltier,  says  of  the  French  government : 

"  They  are  banded  together  by  the  despair  of  forgiveness,  by  the  unani- 
mous detestation  of  mankind" 

This  language  goes  beyond  the  actual  truth,  yet  is  not 
stronger  than  is  warranted  by  the  feeling  of  the  speaker. 

§  546.    CONTROL   OF    EMOTION. 

However  strong  the  passion  of  the  orator  may  be,  it  should 
always  be  under  control,  so  that  after  any  outburst  he  may  re- 
turn to  his  argument,  and  make  even  his  passion  conduce  to  its 
enforcement  Lord  Brougham,  in  his  admirable  Inaugural  Dis- 
course, praises  the  manly  severity  of  Greek  oratory,  and  espe- 
cially the  self-control  which  never  allowed  the  speaker  to  go 
too  far,  but  even  after  the  boldest  outbursts  of  feeling  drew  him 
back  to  his  subject. 

A  good  example  may  be  found  in  Erskine's  speech  on  Stock- 
dale.     He  is  alluding  to  the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings: 

"  Shall  it  be  endured  that  a  subject  of  this  country  may  be  impeached  for 
the  transactions  of  twenty  years ;  that  the  accusation  shall  spread  as  wide  as 
the  region  of  letters ;  that  the  accused  shall  stand  day  after  day  and  year 
after  year  as  a  spectacle  before  the  public,  which  shall  be  kept  in  a  state  of 
perpetual  inflammation  against  him ;  that  he  shall  not,  without  the  severest 
penalties,  be  f>ermitted  to  submit  anything  to  the  judgment  of  mankind  in 
his  defence  ?  If  this  be  the  law  (which  it  is  for  you  to  decide),  such  a  man 
has  no  trial.  That  great  hall  built  by  our  fathers  for  English  justice  is  no 
longer  a  court  but  an  altar,  and  an  Englishman,  instead  of  being  judged  in 
it  by  God  and  his  country,  is  a  victim  and  a  sacrifice." 

After  this  he  at  once  returns  to  severe  argument  with  the 
words : 

"  You  will  carefully  remember  that  I  am  not  presuming  to  question  the 
right  or  the  duty  of  the  Commons  of  England  to  impeach,"  etc. 


Display  of  Feeling  in  Oratory,  501 

§  547.    EULOGY. 

Eulogy,  which  is  the  language  of  praise,  is  prompted  by  emo- 
tions of  love,  admiration,  and  the  like,  and  forms  an  important 
part  of  oratory.  It  sometimes  appears  in  the  form  of  praise 
addressed  to  the  auditory  or  judges,  which  has  already  been 
considered;  but  its  more  appropriate  application  is  to  those 
persons  or  subjects  which  are  connected  with  the  orator's  dis- 
course. 

Many  examples  are  to  be  found  in  the  speeches  of  Burke. 
Thus  in  his  speech  on  the  East  India  Bill  the  peroration  con- 
sists of  a  eulogy  on  Fox,  which  is  presented  in  glowing  lan- 
guage, and  serves  as  an  admirable  close  to  the  argument : 

"  And  now,  having  done  my  duty  to  the  bill,  let  me  say  a  word  to  the  au- 
thor. I  should  leave  him  to  his  own  noble  sentiments  if  the  unworthy  and 
illiberal  language  with  which  he  has  been  treated  beyond  all  example  of  par- 
liamentary liberty  did  not  make  a  few  words  necessary,  not  so  much  in  jus- 
tice to  him  as  to  my  own  feelings.  ...  He  has  put  to  her  hazard  his  ease, 
his  security,  his  interest,  even  his  darling  popularity,  for  the  benefit  of  a 
people  whom  he  has  never  seen.  This  is  the  road  that  all  heroes  have  trod 
before  him.  ...  He  is  now  on  a  great  eminence  where  the  eyes  of  mankind 
are  turned  upon  him.  He  may  live  long ;  he  may  do  much.  But  here  is 
the  summit     He  never  can  exceed  what  he  does  this  day." 

Eulogy  is  sometimes  made  use  of  for  the  sake  of  emphasis. 
Thus  Sheridan,  in  his  speech  against  Warren  Hastings,  men- 
tions a  doctrine  of  Burke's,  indulges  in  a  eulogy  of  that  ora- 
tor, and  then  proceeds  to  state  a  different  view : 

"  This  is  the  sentiment  of  my  noble  and  exalted  friend,  whose  name  I  can 
never  mention  but  with  respect  and  admiration  due  to  his  virtue  and  talents  ; 
whose  proud  disdain  of  vice  can  only  be  equalled  by  the  ability  with  which 
he  exposes  and  controls  it ;  to  whom  I  look  up  with  homage  ;  whose  genius 
is  commensurate  with  philanthropy ;  whose  memory  will  stretch  itself  be- 
yond the  fleeting  objects  of  any  little  partial  shuffling — through  the  whole 
wide  range  of  human  knowledge  and  honorable  aspiration  after  good — as 
large  as  the  system  which  forms  life,  as  lasting  as  those  sentiments  which 
adorn  it ;  but  in  this  sentiment,  so  honorable  to  my  friend,  I  cannot  im- 
plicitly agree." 

The  effect  of  this  eulogy  is  to  call  attention  in  the  most 
pointed  manner,  not  merely  to  Burke's  sentiment,  but  rather 
to  the  orator's  own  view,  which  differs  from  it. 


502  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

§  548.    PANEGYRIC. 

Panegyric  is  a  term  applied  to  orations  which  set  forth  the 
praise  of  some  eminent  person.  It  is  distinguished  by  great 
pomp  and  splendor  of  style  and  exaggeration  of  sentiment. 
Cicero's  speech  in  behalf  of  Marcellus  is  an  example,  of  which 
De  Quincey  says  that  "  the  whole  purpose,  being  a  festal  and 
ceremonial  one,  thanksgiving  its  sole  burden  from  first  to  last, 
it  is  marked  by  the  most  elaborate  stateliness." 

They  were  frequent  in  ancient  times.  In  modern  times  they 
consist  chiefly  of  funeral  orations,  which  are  always  more  or 
less  laudatory.  The  most  celebrated  of  this  class  are  those  of 
Bossuet. 

The  terms  panegyric  and  eulogy  are  often  interchanged  at 
the  present  day.  Thus  Burke  calls  his  eulogy  of  Fox  a  pane- 
gyric. If  a  distinction  be  sought  for  between  the  two,  it  may 
be  stated  thus — that  a  eulogy  refers  to  passages  occurring  in 
the  course  of  a  speech  or  argument,  while  a  panegyric  compre- 
hends the  whole  speech. 

•  The  term  panegj'ric  is  sometimes  applied  to  Grattan's  well- 
known  portrayal  of  Lord  Chatham,  and  to  Burke's  equally 
well-known  description  of  Sheridan's  eloquence. 

§  549.    THE   RETORT. 

A  very  'effective  mode  of  meeting  a  charge  is  by  means  of 
the  retort.  Fox  abounds  in  this,  and  a  good  example  is  found 
in  the  following  passage  from  his  speech  on  the  East  India 
Bill: 

"  After  pronouncing  a  brilliant  eulogy  upon  me  and  my  capacity  to  serve 
the  countrj-,  the  honorable  gentleman  considers  me  at  the  same  time  the 
most  dangerous  man  in  the  kingdom.  [Pitt  said  across  the  House,  "dan- 
gerous only  from  this  measure ;"  to  which  Fox  instantly  made  this  reply :]  I 
call  upon  the  House  to  attend  to  the  honorable  gentleman.  He  thinks  me 
dangerous  only  from  this  measure,  and  confesses  that  hitherto  he  has  seen 
nothing  in  my  conduct  to  obliterate  his  good  opinion.  Compare  this  with 
his  opposition  during  the  last  and  the  present  session.  Let  every  man  re- 
flect that  up  to  this  moment  the  honorable  gentleman  deemed  me  worthy 
of  his  confidence,  and  competent  to  my  situation  in  the  state.  I  thank  him 
for  the  support  he  has  afforded  to  the  minister  he  thus  esteemed,  and  shall 
not  press  the  advantage  he  has  given  me  further  than  leaving  to  himself  to 
reconcile  his  practice  and  doctrine  in  the  best  manner  he  can." 


Display  of  Feeling  in  Oratory.  503 

Another  form  of  the  retort  consists  in  repelling  the  charge 
of  an  opponent  and  applying  it  to  himself.  This  is  called  the 
"  tu  quoque  "  retort. 

Pitt  had  charged  Fox  with  weakening  the  British  Constitu- 
tion through  his  sympathy  with  the  French  Revolution.  Fox 
retorts  by  throwing  the  same  charge  back  upon  Pitt : 

"  That  the  pride,  the  folly,  the  presumption  of  a  single  person  shall  be 
able  to  involve  a  whole  people  in  wretchedness  and  disgrace  is  more  than 
philosophy  can  teach  mortal  patience  to  endure.  Here  are  the  true  weap- 
ons of  the  enemies  of  our  constitution.  Here  may  we  search  for  the  source 
of  these  seditious  writings  meant  either  to  weaken  our  attachment  to  the 
constitution  by  depreciating  its  value,  or  which  loudJy  tells  us  that  we  have 
no  constitution  at  all." 

§  550.    SARCASM. 

Sarcasm  is  a  powerful  weapon  in  the  hands  of  some  orators, 
and  sometimes  this  mode  of  attack  is  more  dreaded  than  any 
other.  It  formed  the  chief  characteristic  of  Junius.  Chatham 
used  it  with  resistless  effect.  Brougham's  speech  against  the 
Durham  clergy  affords  perhaps  the  most  striking  instance  of 
sustained  sarcasm  that  can  be  found  in  oratory.  For  vigor, 
however,  and  variety,  together  with  swift  and  ready  application, 
no  one  has  ever  surpassed  Fox. 

His  speech  on  the  East  India  Bill  affords  an  example : 

"But  the  learned  gentleman  wishes  the  appointment  of  an  Indian  secre- 
tary in  preference  to  this  commission.  In  all  the  learned  gentleman's  ideas 
on  the  government  of  India  the  notion  of  a  new  secretary  of  state  for  the 
Indian  department  springs  up,  and  seems  to  be  cherished  with  the  fondness 
of  consanguinity.  .  .  .  The  learned  gentleman  has  been  for  some  years  con- 
versant with  ministers,  but  his  experience  has  taught  him,  it  seems,  to  con- 
sider secretaries  not  only  untainted  and  immaculate,  but  innocent,  harmless, 
and  incapable.  In  his  time  secretaries  were  all  purity,  with  every  power  of 
corruption  in  their  hands,  but  so  rigidly  attached  to  rectitude  that  no  temp- 
tation could  seduce  them.  .  .  .  This  erroneous  humanity  of  opinion  arises 
from  the  learned  gentleman's  unsuspecting,  unsullied  nature,  as  well  as  from 
a  commerce  with  only  the  best  and  purest  ministers  of  this  country,  which 
has  given  him  so  favorable  an  impression  of  the  secretary  of  state  that  he 
thinks  this  patronage,  so  dangerous  in  the  hands  of  the  commission,  perfectly 
safe  in  his  hands." 

The  sarcasm  was  directed  against  Lord  Shelburne,  and  is 
full  of  bitter  force. 

By  directing  irony  or  sarcasm  against  one  subject,  another 


504  Elements  of  Rhetor ie, 

may  be  introduced  with  great  emphasis   and  effect.     Thus 
Lord  Erskine  sneers  at  Paine  in  order  to  exalt  Newton  : 

"  In  running  the  mind  along  the  long  list  of  sincere  and  devout  Christians, 
I  cannot  help  lamenting  that  Newton  had  not  lived  to  this  day,  to  have  had 
his  shallowness  filled  up  with  this  new  flood  of  light  poured  upon  the  world 
by  Mr.  Thomas  Paine.  But  the  subject  is  too  awful  for  irony.  I  will  speak 
plainly  and  directly.     Newton  was  a  Christian." 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE   QUALIFICATIONS    FOR   AN   ORATOR. 
§  551-  QUALIFICATIONS    FOR   AN    ORATOR. 

Of  these  some  are  general,  and  attainable  by  all  who  set 
forth  to  acquire  them ;  others  are  special,  the  peculiarities  of 
gifted  persons,  and  scarcely  attainable  by  others  under  any 
circumstances.  In  the  first  place  we  have  to  consider  the 
general  qualifications : 

§  552.  COMMAND  OF   THE   SUBJECT. 

I.  The  importance  of  this  is  self-evident.  The  lawyer,  the 
divine,  the  parliamentary  orator,  all  find  it  necessary  to  suc- 
cess. In  parliamentary  debate,  the  speaker  who  fails  in  this 
must  fail  utterly.  Burke  was  distinguished  for  his  immense 
learning,  for  his  profound  and  solid  acquirements,  and  for  the 
thorough  mastery  which  he  exhibited  of  every  subject  to  which 
he  devoted  himself.  It  was  said  of  him  that  he  knew  more  of 
India  than  any  other  living  man  ;  and  in  his  speeches  on  Indian 
affairs  he  exhibited  a  knowledge  which  was  far  different  from 
the  hasty  "cram"  of  the  superficial  Sheridan.  Fox  showed  the 
same  command  of  his  subject,  though  in  a  different  way;  for 
in  his  case  it  arose  from  long  training  and  experience.  His 
great  rival,  Pitt,  was  equally  distinguished.  This  is  a  striking 
characteristic  of  the  orations  of  antiquity;  for  in  these,  espe- 
cially in  those  of  Demosthenes,  may  be  found  a  vivid  repre- 
sentation of  all  contemporary  history. 


The  Qualifications  for  an  Orator.  505 

§  553.   FERTILITY   IN    RESOURCES. 

2.  This  is  chiefly  of  value  in  parliamentary  debate,  since  it  in- 
volves readiness  in  reply  and  quickness  to  take  advantage  of  an 
opponent  or  to  rally  from  a  dangerous  attack.  No  orator  ever 
surpassed  Fox  in  this  respect.  In  his  speeches  we  encounter 
constantly  those  sudden  hits,  thrusts,  and  side-blows ;  those 
rapid  questions  and  answers,  that  dexterity  in  evading  difficul- 
ties, that  unfailing  readiness  in  retort,  and  that  lightning-like 
rapidity  in  seizing  upon  hasty  admissions  and  using  them 
against  his  opponents,  which  gained  for  him  the  title  of  the 
greatest  living  debater.  This  quality  is  also  of  use  in  courts 
of  law,  to  enable  the  advocate  to  counteract  the  effect  of  sud- 
den disclosures,  or  to  take  instant  advantage  of  an  unexpected 
turn  in  the  proceedings. 

§  554.   A   CONCILIATORY   DEMEANOR. 

3.  A  conciliatory  demeanor  is  of  great  advantage.  This  in- 
cludes the  tone  and  manner  of  the  speaker,  which  may  be 
made  very  persuasive  by  a  becoming  modesty  and  a  respectful 
deference  to  the  audience;  and  also  the  expressions,  which 
may  exhibit  a  friendly  consideration  or  esteem  for  the  judges, 
the  hearers,  and  sometimes  even  for  the  adversary. 

If  the  audience  be  friendly,  this  is  necessary  in  order  to  re- 
tain their  good-will  ;  if  hostile,  it  is  likewise  necessary  in  order 
to  disarm  their  hostility.  In  attack,  the  speaker  ought,  if  pos- 
sible, to  make  a  distinction  between  the  opponent  and  the 
audience,  separating  one  from  the  other  ;  so  that,  while  the  for- 
mer is  assailed,  the  latter  may  be  conciliated.  In  many  cases 
even  the  opponent  may  be  praised  for  certain  qualities,  if  only 
for  the  sake  of  giving  greater  emphasis  to  blame.  In  defence 
the  necessity  of  conciliation  is  more  evident,  for  here  all  who 
are  not  with  the  speaker  are  against  him ;  men  are  always  more 
ready  to  condemn  than  to  absolve;  and  the  speaker's  first  aim 
should  be  to  win  over  the  audience  to  his  own  side.  Nowhere 
is  there  a  more  instructive  example  than  the  speech  of  De- 
mosthenes on  the  Crown.  The  orator  here  begins  by  winning 
over  the  audience  to  himself,  and  completely  carrying  them 
with  him;  he  separates  them  from  his  adversary  by  the  most 
subtle  distinction;  for  the  one  he  has  nothing  but  esteem  and 


5o6  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

affection,  for  the  other  nothing  but  scorn  and  contempt ;  the 
defence  is  constantly  turned  into  attack;  the  hearers  are  forced 
to  give  all  their  sympathy  to  the  speaker,  who  never  fails  to 
retain  their  good  feeling  by  appealing  to  the  most  lofty  prin- 
ciples of  human  conduct,  and  taking  it  for  granted  that  they 
must  all  be  so  high-minded  as  to  be  animated  by  no  motives 
of  a  lower  order. 

Among  modern  orators  the  arts  of  conciliation  have  never 
been  more  effectively  exerted  than  by  Erskine.  Judge,  jury, 
the  opposite  counsel,  all  were  included  in  those  kindly  and 
respectful  sentiments  to  which  the  orator  knew  how  to  give  an 
air  of  candor  and  sincerity  by  his  own  modest  deference  and 
implied  self-depreciation. 

§  555.   A    KNOWLEDGE    OF    THE    PERSONS    ADDRESSED. 

4.  Audiences  differ  like  individuals;  and  if  the  orator  would 
persuade  them,  he  must  study  them.  National  differences  are 
very  marked.  An  Irish  and  an  English  audience  have  a  dis- 
similarity which  is  visible  in  Irish  and  English  oratory.  This 
will  be  perceived  in  comparing  the  style  of  Curran  and  Grattan 
with  that  of  Fox  and  Pitt.  The  Irish  taste  leans  to  rhetorical 
display;  the  English  is  sober  and  more  chastened.  Sheridan 
indulged  to  excess  in  ornament,  and  even  Burke  was  not  un- 
frequently  carried  away  by  his  love  of  imagery.  The  great 
American  orators  bear  a  closer  resemblance  to  the  Irish  than 
to  the  English.  Webster,  who  rivals  Burke  in  his  method  and 
compass,  resembles  him  also  in  his  imaginative  power  and  love 
of  splendid  diction.  The  sonorous  periods  of  Choate  and  the 
epigrammatic  sentences  of  Wendell  Phillips  exhibit  a  love  of 
rhetoric  on  the  part  of  speaker  and  audience  which  cannot  be 
found  in  any  of  their  English  contemporaries.  English  audi- 
ences are  business-like,  and  so  are  English  orators,  such  as 
Bright,  Gladstone,  and  Disraeli.  It  does  not  follow  that  Eng- 
lish oratory  is  the  best,  in  spite  of  the  complacency  of  English 
critics;  for  there  is  a  danger  that  oratory  may  die  out  altogether 
and  resolve  itself  into  mere  "business-talk."  After  all,  there 
should  be  some  room  left  for  that  noble  diction  which  gives 
forth  such  magnificent  music  in  the  great  writers  and  speakers 
of  the  past;  which  filled  with  rapturous  delight  the  hearers  of 
Webster  and  still  charms  the  readers  of  De  Quincey. 


The  Qualifications  for  an  Orator.  507 

The  audiences  of  every  community  have  their  own  peculiar- 
ities, and  these  must  be  regarded.  Respect  must  be  shown  to 
passions,  to  prejudices,  to  local  feelings,  to  religious  sentiments, 
and  the  like;  so  that  these  may  not  be  needlessly  oftended. 
By  neglect  or  indifference,  or  through  pure  arrogance,  an  orator 
may  give  mortal  offence,  and  ruin  his  own  cause. 

It  may  be  supposed  that  the  preacher  is  an  exception,  but 
this  is  only  apparently  the  case.  It  is  true  that  the  preacher 
is  bound  to  declare  the  whole  truth,  and  reason  of  temperance, 
righteousness,  and  judgment  to  come,  in  spite  of  the  pride  or 
prejudice  of  man;  but  in  this  case  he  has  a  power  on  his  side 
which  is  felt  by  all  to  be  superior  to  pride  and  prejudice,  and 
that  is  the  human  conscience.  The  faithful  preacher,  there- 
fore, even  when  he  is  denouncing  darling  sins,  may  be  sure 
that  he  has  on  his  side  the  approval  of  the  conscience  of 
his  hearers ;  and  in  this  way  he  is  able  to  carry  them  all  with 
him. 

The  time-server  of  the  pulpit,  who  flatters  his  hearers,  is 
therefore  not  only  faithless  to  his  duty  and  to  the  laws  of  God, 
but  even  from  a  rhetorical  point  of  view  he  commits  an  error, 
since  he  dwells  upon  lower  motives,  when  he  may  safely  and 
triumphantly  appeal  to  others  of  a  higher  and  transcendent 
character.  Thus  St.  Paul  could  exhibit  all  the  conciliatory  arts 
of  a  skilled  orator,  and  yet  go  on  to  denounce  sin  and  preach 
righteousness  till  Felix  trembled,  and  Agrippa  exclaimed — 
"  Almost  thou  persuadest  me  to  be  a  Christian." 

§  556.  THE    SPEAKER    MUST  ADAPT    HIMSELF    TO   THE    INTELLI- 
GENCE   OF    THE    AUDIENCE. 

5.  The  speaker  must  adapt  himself  to  the  intelligence  of 
the  audience,  neither  rising  too  far  above  it  nor  sinking  too  far 
beneath  it. 

Sometimes  the  speech  is  above  the  level  of  the  audience. 
This  fault  has  been  charged  upon  Burke,  whose  most  magnifi- 
cent orations  had  not  that  effect  upon  the  House  which  might 
have  been  expected,  for  the  reason  that  it  was  his  fashion  to 
enter  upon  flights  where  his  hearers  could  not  follow.  His 
audience  not  seldom  found  themselves  surfeited  with  the  sweets 
of  imagery,  and  the  reasonings  of  the  orator  dark  with  excess 
of  light.     For  Burke  loved  to  search  after  the  causes  of  things; 

Y  2 


5o8  Elancnts  of  Rhetoric. 

to  indulge  in  broad  generalizations;  to  pursue  affairs  to  their 
logical  results;  to  define  where  no  definitions  were  necessary; 
to  be  elaborate  when  simplicity  was  desired,  and  lengthy  in 
cases  which  demanded  brevity.  Thus  in  many  conspicuous 
instances  the  great  orator  showed  a  lack  of  savoir /aire  which 
marred  his  chances  of  success.     In  the  words  of  Goldsmith — 

•*He  went  on  refining, 
And  thought  of  convincing,  while  they  thought  of  dining." 

It  has  been  said  that  Burke's  oratory  would  not  be  tolerated 
at  the  present  day  in  the  British  Parliament.  It  may  be  added 
that  even  in  his  own  day  it  was  often  a  failure;  and  chiefly 
from  inability  to  appreciate  the  temper  of  his  audience.  This 
was  especially  the  case  at  the  close  of  his  career.  And  yet, 
for  the  student  of  the  present  day,  the  speeches  of  Burke  have 
a  power  and  interest  that  are  surpassed  by  none  of  modern 
times,  if  they  are  even  equalled  by  any. 

Milton's  Areopagitica,  that  noble  example  of  close  reasoning 
and  splendid  rhetoric,  had  little  or  no  effect  at  the  time,  chiefly 
because  the  arguments  were  above  the  intellectual  and  moral 
level  of  those  to  whom  they  were  addressed.  More  familiar 
examples  of  this  fault  may  be  found  in  the  case  of  preachers 
who  deliver  learned  discourses  to  illiterate  congregations.  The 
speaker  who  addresses  an  average  audience  of  plain  people 
will  fail  if  he  pitches  his  note  too  high,  if  he  appeals  to  motives 
that  are  too  lofty  and  too  much  idealized,  if  he  theorizes  about 
principles  which  they  do  not  understand.  A  mixed  audience 
will  generally  prefer  plain  facts  in  plain  language,  the  concrete 
rather  than  the  abstract. 

To  go  below  the  level  of  the  intelligence  of  an  audience  is 
even  worse.  Many  so-called  "popular"  orators,  when  brought 
before  a  cultivated  assembly,  turn  out  failures.  Revival  preach- 
ers, who  have  exercised  unbounded  sway  over  ignorant  masses, 
are  sometimes  brought  to  city  churches,  and  find  that  they  can 
do  nothing  with  their  critical,  fastidious,  and  exacting  hearers. 

§  557-   A   JUDICIOUS    SELECTION    OF   THE    OCCASION    FOR 
SPEAKING. 

6.  A  judicious  selection  of  the  occasion  for  speaking  is  a 
matter  of  much  importance,  and  is  closely  connected  with  the 


The  Qualifications  for  an  Orator.  509 

above.  The  value  of  this  may  be  seen  from  one  conspicuous 
example  —  Burke's  speech  on  the  Nabob  of  xArcot's  Debts. 
This  has  been  called  by  Brougham  the  best  by  far  of  all  Burke's 
orations.  It  was  delivered,  however,  upon  a  most  unfortunate 
occasion.  It  was  late,  the  House  was  weary  from  a  prolonged 
debate,  and  the  speech  was  five  hours  in  length.  .Under  such 
circumstances  they  listened  with  impatience  and  indifference, 
if  not  hostility;  and  at  its  close  Pitt  said  that  it  had  not  made 
the  slightest  impression.  "  The  speech,"  he  added,  "  may  with 
perfect  safety  be  passed  over  in  silence." 

§  558.  THE   ORATOR   SHOULD   NOT  AIM   AFTER   TOO    MUCH. 

7.  It  is  often  well  not  to  aim  after  too  much.  When  an 
audience  is  hostile,  the  object  to  be  attained  should  be  set  as 
low  as  possible,  consistent  with  the  orator's  own  cause.  To 
aim  at  the  whole  would  be  to  lose  all. 

We  have  to  consider  in  the  next  place  the  qualities  which 
are  peculiar  to  the  individual.  These  form  part  of  the  equip- 
ment received  from  nature,  and  cannot  be  acquired  by  art. 
They  may  be  classified  as  physical,  moral,  and  intellectual. 

§  559.   PHYSICAL   ADVANTAGES. 

Orators  are  often  endowed  by  nature  with  personal  advan- 
tages of  face,  voice,  gesture,  bearing,  which  have  not  a  little  to 
do  with  their  success.  The  efforts  of  Demosthenes  to  over- 
come physical  difficulties  are  known  to  all.  The  face,  figure, 
bearing,  and  voice  of  Cicero  were  all  in  keeping  with  his  ora- 
tory, and  contributed  to  its  effect.  The  presence  and  the  voice 
of  Chatham  were  irresistible ;  and  the  anecdotes  that  are  told 
of  the  power  of  a  glance,  a  gesture,  and  a  word,  all  serve  to 
show  what  advantage  the  orator  may  derive  from  these.  The 
majestic  attitude  of  Daniel  Webster,  his  towering  forehead, 
piercing  eye,  and  reverberating  tones  have  been  described  by 
his  friends  in  language  full  of  wonder;  there  seemed  some- 
thing superhuman  in  the  man ;  and  this  feeling  was  expressed 
in  the  sobriquet  which  was  often  familiarly  applied  to  him, 
which  indicated  the  extraordinary  personal  ascendency  that  he 
gained  over  all  with  whom  he  came  in  contact  —  the  "god- 
like Dan."  On  the  other  hand,  orators  have  struggled  suc- 
cessfully against  personal  disadvantages  of  a  serious  kind,  and 


5IO  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

have  asserted  their  power  in  spite  of  these.  St.  Paul  alludes 
in  depreciating  terms  to  his  personal  presence,  which  he  calls 
"contemptible."  It  is  but  fair,  however,  to  add  that  this  may 
be  understood  in  a  diflferent  way.  Mirabeau  and  Wilkes  were 
notorious  for  their  personal  defects.  Burke's  appearance  was 
ungainly,  and  his  voice  was  bad ;  he  also  had  an  Irish  accent, 
which  was  distasteful  to  English  ears.  Grattan  was  unprepos- 
sessing in  appearance  and  awkward  in  manner;  Brougham 
was  repulsive  in  features,  harsh  in  voice,  slovenly  in  dress,  and 
uncouth  in  his  general  demeanor.  The  success  of  these  last- 
named  orators,  in  spite  of  their  physical  disadvantages,  should 
serve  as  an  encouragement  to  all  who  seek  after  excellence  in 
speaking,  and  should  teach  them  that  however  desirable  it  may 
be  to  have  a  superior  voice  and  presence,  yet  that  even  with- 
out these  an  orator  may  be  truly  great  by  force  of  language, 
reason,  and  feeling. 

§  560.   MORAL   QUALITIES. 

Courage  and  self-confidence. 

Without  these  no  orator  can  hope  to  attain  to  high  excel- 
lence. Demosthenes  and  Cicero  exhibited  them  in  a  great  de- 
gree. Cowardice  has  indeed  been  charged  upon  both  of  them ; 
.^schines  accuses  Demosthenes  of  quailing  before  Philip  and 
cringing  to  Alexander;  Cicero  is  also  frequently  spoken  of  as 
a  timid  man.  The  only  answer  to  this  is  that  if  these  men 
were  not  courageous,  they  certainly  were  able  to  simulate  cour- 
age in  a  way  that  is  unintelligible  to  the  ordinary  mind.  De- 
mosthenes showed  his  courage  in  having  led  a  great  party  in 
times  of  the  utmost  peril,  and  in  having  over  and  over  again 
risked  his  life.  Cicero  may  have  had  his  moments  of  weak- 
ness, but  in  general  he  exhibits  the  utmost  boldness,  daring, 
and  defiance.  His  character  may  be  summed  up  in  the  words, 
"Contempsi  Catilinae  gladios,  non  pertimescam  tuos;"  and  yet 
his  death  came  from  the  very  swords  which  he  defied.  Like 
Demosthenes,  he  perished  because  he  had  braved  the  fury  of 
the  victorious  party.  Both  of  these  men,  if  they  had  been 
really  timid,  would  have  chosen  a  safe  obscurity,  and  would 
have  contrived  somehow  to  make  their  peace  with  the  triumph- 
ant party. 

The  same  may  be  seen  in  the  great  modern  orators.     Chat- 


The  Qualifications  for  an  Orator.  5 1 1 

ham  began  by  defying  Walpole,  and  ended  by  fighting  against 
a  great  majority.  Burke,  during  the  greater  part  of  his  career, 
fought  courageously  against  almost  hopeless  odds.  Fox  was 
never  greater  than  when,  after  the  Westminster  election,  he 
stood  almost  single-handed  confronting  a  host  of  foes.  Pitt's 
courage  and  constancy  enabled  him  to  maintain  his  place 
against  an  immense  majority,  and  ultimately  gain  the  victory., 
Brougham's  best  speeches  are  monuments  of  his  unflinching 
courage.  Wendell  Phillips,  Charles  Sumner,  and  William 
Lloyd  Garrison  are  examples  of  great  orators  who  have  liter- 
ally held  their  lives  in  their  hands  while  contending  against  a 
great  and  unscrupulous  enemy. 

Self-confidence  is  identical  with  courage,  and  means  that 
faith  which  one  has  in  his  own  cause  and  his  own  measures. 
Yet  sometimes  orators  may  seem  to  fail  in  this  from  that  trepi- 
dation which  they  feel  in  the  presence  of  an  audience.  There 
is  a  feeling  from  which  even  great  orators  are  not  exempt  akin 
to  that  which  among  actors  is  known  as  "stage  fright."  It 
arises  from  oversensitiveness,  a  feeling  of  responsibility,  a  per- 
ception of  the  ludicrous,  und  other  causes.  The  very  things 
that  lead  to  stage  fright  may  be  the  requisites  to  success  in 
oratory. 

Vehemence.  This  includes  intense  feeling,  fiery  energy,  and 
fervid  eloquence.  It  is  the  chief  characteristic  of  Demosthenes, 
and  is  celebrated  in  Milton's  well-known  lines  : 

"Thence  to  the  famous  orators  repair, 
Those  ancient,  whose  resistless  eloquence 
Wielded  at  will  that  fierce  democratic, 
Shook  the  arsenal,  and  fulmin'd  over  Greece 
To  Macedon,  and  Artaxerxes'  throne." 

Among  modern  orators,  Chatham  exhibits  most  of  this. 

Elevation.  Demosthenes  and  Chatham  resemble  each  other 
in  this  also ;  they  everywhere  exhibit  generous  sentiments,  com- 
prehensive statesmanship,  grand  conceptions  of  the  position 
and  duty  of  their  respective  countries,  a  lofty  regard  for  her 
honor  and  glory,  an  intense  spirit  of  liberty,  and  a  high  per- 
sonal sense  of  honor. 

Sincerity.  It  is  one  of  the  highest  essentials  to  success- 
ful oratory  that  the  hearers  believe  in  the  sincerity  of  the 
speaker.     No  preacher  can  be  successful  whose  piety  is  doubt- 


5 1 2  Elemoits  of  Rhetoric. 

ed  \  no  statesman  whose  patriotism  is  suspected,  or  whose  pro- 
fessions of  lofty  principles  are  taken  for  a  cloak  to  self-seeking. 
That  advocate  labors  under  a  terrible  disadvantage  who  does 
not  believe  in  the  justice  of  his  cause.  Insincerity,  disingenu- 
ousness,  affectation,  all  serve  to  ruin  a  cause,  and  the  finest 
language  is  taken  for  nothing  better  than  an  empty  sound. 

§  561.   INTELLECTUAL   QUALITIES. 

Logical  power.  Reasoning,  method,  analysis  and  synthesis, 
abstraction  and  generalization  —  all  these  are  essentials,  and 
exist  in  different  degrees.  Burke  is  said  by  De  Quincey  to 
have  had  of  all  men  of  that  age  the  finest  understanding.  He 
shows  always  a  comprehensive  grasp  of  his  subject,  close  and 
continuous  logic,  and  a  constant  effort  to  trace  out  things  to 
their  causes.  Chatham  is  irregular  in  his  method  ;  he  shows 
less  of  reason  than  of  feeling;  he  is  impatient  of  slow  logical 
processes,  and  deals  in  vehement  assertion  or  denial.  Pitt  is 
logical  and  argumentative,  with  admirable  method ;  Erskine  is 
like  him  in  this,  but  is  fuller  of  illustration,  and  also  of  warmth 
of  feeling;  Fox  is  irregular  in  method,  but  full  offeree;  Chat- 
ham, Burke,  and  Fox  all  alike  shun  abstractions,  and  however 
else  they  may  differ,  they  resemble  one  another  in  their  prefer- 
ence for  the  concrete. 

Versatility.  Subtlety  of  thought,  affluence  of  expression, 
wide  command  of  subjects  for  illustration,  extensive  attain- 
ments— all  these  are  included  under  this  term,  and  are  chiefly 
exhibited  by  Burke. 

Imagination.  That  of  Chatham  is  vigorous,  lofty,  and  com- 
prehensive. By  this  he  gained  that  skill  in  making  inferences 
and  deductions  which,  whether  we  call  it  sagacity  or  forecast, 
placed  him  above  all  other  statesmen.  Burke's  imagination  is 
conspicuous  everywhere — in  his  imagery,  in  his  descriptions,  in 
his  keen  perception  of  hidden  causes  of  things  lying  in  the 
past,  and  in  his  forecast  of  the  future. 

Command  of  language.  Orators  differ  greatly  in  this  re- 
spect, the  vocabulary  of  some  being  as  limited  as  that  of  others 
is  unlimited.  In  affluence  and  rhetorical  power,  Burke  sur- 
passed all  other  English  orators.  In  readiness,  aptitude,  and 
quickness  of  extempore  effort,  Chatham  was  without  an  equal. 
His  denunciation  of  Lord  Suffolk,  one  of  the  most  vehement 


Dialogue.  513 

strains  of  indignant  eloquence  in  English  oratory,  was  made 
without  premeditation,  and  remains  without  any  equal  as  an 
example  at  once  of  vehement  emotion  and  readiness  and  rich- 
ness of  expression. 


CHAPTER   X. 

DIALOGUE. 


§  562.    DIALOGUE. 

In  other  kinds  of  composition  the  subject  is  treated  by  one, 
viz.,  the  author,  whether  writer  or  speaker.  This  is  the  case  in 
description,  narration,  and  exposition.  Even  in  debate,  which  is 
most  nearly  akin  to  dialogue,  this  holds  good,  since  each  speech 
in  a  debate  is  by  itself,  a  single  consideration  of  the  subject  by 
one  individual — the  speaker. 

Dialogue  is  different.  It  is  the  consideration  of  a  subject  by 
more  than  one.  Here  the  interlocutors  and  their  arguments 
must  be  regarded  as  inseparable. 

Dialogue  is  an  imitation  of  the  conversation  of  real  life,  and 
differs  from  other  kinds  of  literature  as  conversation  differs 
from  individual  discussion,  soliloquy,  or  monologue. 

Dialogue  is  very  ancient  in  literature.  There  are  indications 
of  it  in  the  Song  of  Solomon  ;  the  Book  of  Job  is  of  this  char- 
acter. Yet  it  may  be  considered  as  having  derived  its  real 
origin  among  the  Greeks. 

The  fact  has  already  been  noted  that  Greek  literature  ap- 
pealed to  the  ear,  and  was  the  property  of  the  outside  world 
rather  than  of  the  recluse.  Epic  and  lyric  poetry  were  sung; 
the  drama  was  for  the  ear  and  eye ;  the  Athenians  were  a  com- 
munity of  talkers,  not  readers.  Philosophers  talked  familiarly 
with  their  disciples  or  opponents.  Their  doctrines  were  con- 
veyed by  word  of  mouth  rather  than  by  writing.  Socrates 
never  wrote  a  line,  and  others,  like  him,  restricted  themselves 
to  viva  voce  discussions.  The  method  was  that  of  simple  dia- 
logue. It  was  his  custom  to  traverse  the  streets,  and  enter 
into  conversation  with  individuals.     His  disciples  adopted  not 


514  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

only  his  sentiments,  but  his  m.inner;  and  in  their  philosophical 
writings  employed  the  Socratic  method  of  dialogue.  The  chief 
of  these  were  Plato  and  Xenophon,  the  former  of  whom  wrote 
in  dialogue  exclusively. 

Two  kinds  of  dialogue  may  be  observed  : 
I.  Didactic  dialogue.     2.  Dramatic  dialogue. 

§  563.    DIDACTIC    DIALOGUE. 

1.  Dialogue  is  didactic  when  it  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
position. The  most  important  are  the  works  of  Plato,  of  which 
the  best  known  is  the  Phsedo,  where  he  argues  in  favor  of 
the  immortality  of  the  soul.  Socrates  is  introduced  as  chief 
speaker,  and  with  the  discussion  is  given  an  account  of  the  last 
moments  of  the  great  teacher's  life.  Plato's  method  here,  as 
elsewhere,  is  to  use  Socrates  as  the  exponent  of  his  own  views. 
Some  of  the  works  of  Xenophon  are  of  the  same  class;  as 
the  Memorabilia,  which  purports  to  be  an  account  of  the  teach- 
ings of  Socrates. 

Cicero  wrote  several  treatises  in  the  same  style,  e.  g.^  the 
Tusculan  Questions,  though  his  dialogue  is  but  partial,  and 
soon  becomes  lost  sight  of  in  the  reasonings  of  the  chief  speak- 
er. Lucian  affords  a  better  example  of  this  mode  of  compo- 
sition. In  modern  times  the  dialogue  has  been  used  for  im- 
portant purposes.  The  idealism  of  Berkeley  is  put  forth  in  a 
dialogue  between  Philonus  and  Hylas ;  and  Walter  Savage 
Landor's  most  valuable  contributions  to  literature  have  this 
form. 

The  dialogue  as  a  means  of  exposition  is  limited  in  its  scope. 
Even  at  its  best,  as  employed  by  Plato,  it  does  not  admit  of 
full  argumentative  treatment,  or  of  any  general  discussion  in- 
volving minor  arguments  of  a  cumulative  character,  or  contain- 
ing syllogistic  processes,  with  major  and  minor  premises. 

§  564.    DRAMATIC   DIALOGUE. 

2.  This  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  narration, 
ist.  In  the  drama. 

This  will  be  considered  under  the  head  of  dramatic  litera- 
ture. 

2d.  In  prose  fiction. 

Prose  fiction  has  had  a  great  development  in  our  day.    It  has 


The  Drama.  5^5 

taken  the  prominent  place  which  once  was  held  by  dramatic 
literature,  and  attracted  writers  of  the  greatest  genius,  who 
might  once  have  written  for  the  stage.  It  is  many-sided,  and 
is  used  for  all  subjects  in  all  possible  ways.  It  is  as  compre- 
hensive as  literature  itself,  ranging  in  its  aim  throughout  all 
the  world  of  things  that  are  of  human  interest,  from  the  pettiest 
details  of  social  life  to  the  principles  of  religion,  national  wel- 
fare, morals,  civilization,  reform. 

The  greatest  novelists  are  those  who  use  the  dialogue  to  the 
best  advantage.  They  use  it  for  two  leading  purposes :  ist, 
to  delineate  character;  2d,  to  narrate  the  action. 

The  dialogue  is  particularly  successful  in  the  hands  of  Scott, 
Dickens,  and  Thackeray.  With  them  the  whole  story  unfolds 
itself  in  this  way. 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE  DRAMA. 


§  565.    THE   DRAMA. 

Dramatic  literature  has  to  do  with  the  visible  representation 
of  the  acts  of  men.  It  involves  two  necessary  elements — ist, 
narration  ;  2d,  action. 

The  narration  is  produced  by  means  of  dialogue.  The  action 
accompanies  the  spoken  words. 

§  566.    THE   DIVISIONS   OF    DRAMATIC    LITERATURE. 

The  chief  divisions  of  dramatic  literature  are  the  following: 
Tragedy,  comedy,  melodrama,  farce,  burlesque,  masque,  opera 
(musical  drama). 

Tragedy  is  the  representation  of  grave  and  serious  subjects. 

Comedy  is  the  representation  of  the  subjects  of  common 
life. 

Melodrama  is  the  representation  of  scenes  that  partake  of 
tragedy  and  comedy,  and  approach  the  extravagant. 

Farce  is  the  representation  of  scenes  that  are  broadly  humor- 
ous. 


5 1 6  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

Burlesque  is  the  representation  of  scenes  that  are  absurd 
and  extravagantly  ridiculous. 

Masque — a  play,  now  out  €rf  fashion,  representing  pieces  of 
a  mythological  or  allegorical  character. 

Opera — a  play  written  chiefly  for  accompaniment  to  music. 

§  567.    ORIGIN   OF   THE   DRAMA. 

Dramatic  literature  may  be  either  in  prose  or  poetry.  It 
grew  up  first  as  a  dialogue  around  choral  songs,  ^schylus, 
who  brought  tragedy  to  its  first  stage  of  development,  may  be 
regarded  as  virtually  its  creator.  From  the  Supplices  to  the 
Prometheus  Bound  a  regular  stage  of  growth  and  progression 
may  be  seen.  The  former  is  chiefly  made  up  of  choral  parts, 
and  represents  the  early  style,  while  the  latter  is  chiefly  made 
up  of  dialogue,  and  belongs  to  a  more  advanced  period.  The 
invention  of  comedy  is  attributed  to  Thespis,  whose  rude  be- 
ginning was  soon  developed  into  the  great  works  of  Aris- 
tophanes and  Menander. 

§   568.    MYSTERY   AND    MORALITY    PLAYS. 

The  modern  drama,  like  the  ancient,  had  a  religious  origin. 
Its  first  appearance  is  in  the  mystery  plays,  which  were  repre- 
sented in  connection  with  religious  service — ministerium — from 
which  word  "mysterj-"  is  derived.  The  subject  of  these  was 
something  taken  from  sacred  history  or  legend ;  the  place  the 
open  air  near  the  cathedral;  the  stage  was  in  three  depart- 
ments, representing  heaven  and  earth,  with  a  trap-door  leading 
below  into  the  infernal  regions.  In  these  comedy  and  tragedy 
were  combined.  The  morality  plays  arose  during  the  period 
of  the  Reformation ;  they  were  of  an  allegorical  nature,  and 
were  used  by  each  party  to  satirize  or  attack  the  other,  and 
as  a  means  of  political  and  religious  controversy.  After  this 
arose  the  regular  drama;  comedy  first  in  Ralph  Roister  Doister, 
155 1,  and  Gammer  Gurton's  Needle,  1565  ;  tragedy  in  Gorboduc, 
1562;  followed  immediately  by  the  advent  of  Marlowe,  Shake- 
speare, and  the  Elizabethan  dramatists. 

§   569.    THE   GREEK    DRAMA. 

The  drama  has  the  widest  possible  field  of  action.  Its  origin 
was  in  connection  with  religion,  to  which  at  first  it  did  good 


The  Drama.  517 

service.  The  moral  and  religious  teachings  of  Greek  tragedy 
surpass  those  of  Greek  philosophy. 

^schylus  in  the  Prometheus  grapples  with  the  most  difficult 
problems  of  unmerited  suffering ;  and  the  invincible  resolve  of 
the  suffering  friend  of  man  produces  the  sublimest  creation  of 
ancient  genius,  that  was  never  equalled  till  Milton  came. 

Sophocles  also  grapples  with  the  mystery  of  unmerited  suf- 
fering in  his  GEdipus.  He  gives  utterance  to  the  loftiest  max- 
ims, which  correspond  in  some  cases  to  the  highest  and  noblest 
in  the  modern  sentiment  of  honor;  and  everywhere  loves  to 
display  the  proudest  virtue  of  manhood  with  the  most  tender 
grace  of  womanhood.  He  is  deeply  religious,  and  some  of  his 
choral  songs  have  a  liturgical  power  and  elevation. 

Euripides  makes  his  deities  odious,  and  thus  utters  a  protest 
against  the  corrupt  mythology  of  the  day,  which  was  re-echoed 
with  fiercer  scorn  by  his  great  enemy  Aristophanes,  and  after- 
wards repeated  by  Plato.  On  the  other  hand,  his  human  be- 
ings display  great  variety;  his  men  are  not  equal  to  those  of 
Sophocles,  but  his  women  exhibit  the  most  heroic  power  of 
clinging  love  and  self-abnegation.  In  her  whom  De  Quincey 
calls  "the  holy  Antigone,"  woman's  love  and  self-sacrifice 
reach  their  highest  point;  while  in  his  Hecuba  we  have  a  Greek 
conception  of  all  that  is  most  moving  in  a  Mater  Dolorosa. 
The  Medea  and  Alcestis,  standing  at  two  opposite  poles,  dis- 
play at  once  the  immense  variety  which  Euripides  could  com- 
pass in  the  delineation  of  female  character. 

§   570.    THE    MODERN    DRAMA. 

No  rivals  of  these  great  masters  appeared  until  the  rise  of 
the  English  drama.  Shakespeare  is  a  world  in  himself.  He 
has  written  English  history  once  for  all ;  and  from  him  there 
will  probably  never  be  any  appeal.  His  writings  are  a  store- 
house of  maxims  and  apophthegms  in  worldly  wisdom.  His 
characters  are  living  flesh  and  blood.  Above  all,  his  women 
have  a  variety  and  verisimilitude  never  witnessed  before.  He 
can  also  handle  the  deepest  mysteries,  and  his  Hamlet  still 
remains  to  baffle  the  most  earnest  student. 

The  drama  arose  in  Spain  under  Calderon  and  Lope  de  Vega; 
in  France,  under  Corneille,  Racine,  and  Moli^re;  in  Italy,  Al- 
fieri  and  Goldoni  are  best  known  to  foreigners;  but  none  of 


5i8  EUfnents  of  Rhetoric. 

these  have  been  so  acceptable  to  English  taste  as  the  German 
drama,  the  last,  but  not  the  least,  which  Goethe  and  Schiller 
have  elevated  lo  the  highest  class. 

The  English  drama  lost  its  pre-eminence  long  ago;  yet  great 
works  have  never  ceased  to  be  produced  from  age  to  age,  and 
tragedy  has  an  irresistible  charm  for  men  of  genius.  Not  to 
speak  of  Byron's  plays,  or  the  "  Cenci"  of  Shelley — which  many 
think  the  best  English  tragedy  since  Shakespeare — the  number 
of  important  works  of  this  description  produced  in  our  own  day 
is  surprising.  Browning  has  written  tragedies  which  never  have 
been  acted,  and  never  can  be.  Charles  Kingsley  regarded  his 
"Saint's  Tragedy"  as  his  best  work.  Longfellow's  "Spanish 
Student,"  Poe's  fragment,  "  Politian,"  Bailey's  "  Festus,"  the 
"Life  Drama"  of  Alexander  Smith,  are  all  familiar  examples; 
while  the  popularity  of  Swinburne,  and  the  latest  efforts  of 
Tennyson  in  the  same  direction,  show  the  attraction  of  the 
drama  over  the  mind  of  the  poet. 


CHAPTER   XIL 

POETRY. 


§  571.   POETRY. 

Poetry  is  a  term  of  the  widest  comprehensiveness,  being 
almost  commensurate  with  literature  itself.  Its  aim  may  be 
to  instruct,  to  convince,  to  persuade,  or  to  please;  it  may  em- 
brace all  kinds  of  composition,  description,  narration,  exposi- 
tion, dialogue  or  dramatic  writing;  and  it  also  assumes  many 
forms  of  its  own,  which  are  subject  to  distinct  and  definite 
classification. 

§   572.   POETRY    DIFFERS    FROM    PROSE   AS    TO    THE    SENTIMENT. 

_R)etry_^iff£j:sJj:QilLprosejn  certajn xrc^ 

I.  It  differ?^  jp  the  seniimpnt,  whirh  is  always  more  elevated, 

moreTmpassioned,  and  more  purely  imaginative.     It  treaty  of 

"subjects  whi^h  nn  by  no  p<;>sfiibl]Hy  l^^/'^nsid^^rgfMn  jro'ip 

Horner'^ 41iad,-Bante*S'DmrTg-€ini!eily,  and  Milton's  Paradise 


Poetry,  519 

jLost  are  exarrip1p«i  nf  fhpmpg  ^irhirh,  from  their  lQfty^ima|3[ma- 
tive  character,  are  essentially  poetic,     "fhis  evnltntion  ol^^njjb. 


jppnt  is  the  first  and  highest  characteristic  ofjaaetry,  and  may 
J^^Hf^pllffr^m  its  snle  constituent  plempnt,  and  thus  the  poetic 
thoughtTeven  when  arrayed  in  the  garb  of  prose,  is  properly 
takfitt-a&-  poetry. 

§  573.  .POETRY^ PJJEFF.B.S  gRQM  ,P«QSE  AS  TQ  THE,FORM. 

I  St.  It  Hify^'-'^  '^'^  ^"  ^^^  wnrdg  f>mp]n3rpd I]]L£_i:flcak"lary 

of  poetry -is.  largervrteher,  and  iiua:a_S2U2iessiYe  .tiuU-tbat  of 
prose-  It  admits  new  words  more  readily  j  it  retains  those 
which  have  become  obsolete  in  general  literature ;  it  also  em- 

plnyc   m-any  wnrH^   nnH  fprmipationS  whirh   flrp  pprillJir  tn  Ifnol^- 

and  all  th£se_combine  to  form  a  j)ojitijC;  dialecLjdlich-.&tands 
apart  from  the  common  speech  as  something  q^uiifijlisUDCt. 

2 d.   It   differ^'ng  IP  tKf^fyrrflrrgPmPnf  ^f  wnr<^|f; ^.QSXx^  has 

ifli'nm*^  c\^  its  <^^^"  ;  it  allows  great  lil>erty  of  inversioQ  j^nd 
admits  of  grammatical-construcliuns  which  arc  net  lu  be  found 
ejsevvlifii^. 

3d.  It  permits  the  largest  possible  use  of  figjures  of  speeph. 
Many  of  these  are  peculiar  to  poetry;  and  others  which  may 
be  used  in  prose  have  their  highest  effectiveness  here.  The 
imaginative  character  of  figurative  language  renders  it  pre- 
eminently poetical. 

4th.  Finally,  poetry  has  grenerally  a  certain  mode  of  presen- 
tation pecuhar  to  jt^ftlf  v^^^^  w^'^h  th*^  wnrdft  ar?  t^''?^y"ii  '^^'*^ 
•  is  called  versification. 

§  574.  POETRY    EXHIBITS    THE    HIGHEST   POWER   OF   THOUGHT 
AND   THE    LARGEST    RESOURCES    OF    LANGUAGE. 

Poetry  affords  the  best  example  of  the  power  of  thought  and 
the  resources  of  language.  It  deals  with  the  real  and  the  ideal, 
and  is  the  product  both  of  reason  and  fancy.  But  the  poet  is 
impatient  of  the  restraints  of  mere  reasoning;  he  prefers  the 
larger  field  of  action  which  is  presented  by  the  imagination. 
He  leaps  at  conclusions,  and  affirms  directly  that  which  cannot 
be  reached  by  logical  processes.  He  expresses  himself  by  in- 
tuition, and  announces  truths  which  no  other  can  discover; 
and  so  it  is  that  many  writings  are  weak  as  arguments  or  as 


520  Elements  of  RJictoric. 

narratives,  but  all-powerful  as  poetry.  His  highest  office  is 
to  unfold  spiritual  truths;  to  present  us  with  lofty  standards 
of  action  ;  to  bring  before  us  the  ideal.  Imagination  calls  into 
exercise  the  best  faculties  of  man,  and  the  greatest  productions 
of  human  genius  are  the  works  of  the  poets.  Plato  is  the  sub- 
limest  of  philosophers  because  he  is  in  soul  a  poet,  but  he 
is  surpassed  by  -^schylus  and  Sophocles,  who  are  poets  and 
nothing  else.  And  thus  the  world  places  Homer  above  Aris- 
totle, Shakespeare  above  Bacon,  Milton  above  Locke,  Goethe 
above  Kant. 

§  575.  POETRY   AFFORDS   THE   STRONGEST   EXPRESSION    FOR 
EMOTION. 

Poetry  affords  the  strongest  expression  for  human  emotions, 
and  its  power  can  be  estimated  by  its  effects.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  quote  the  saying  of  Fletcher  of  Saltoun  as  to  the  rela- 
tive influence  of  a  people's  ballads  and  a  people's  laws ;  but  it 
may  be  affirmed  that  the  purest  and  tenderest  and  manliest 
sentiments  of  the  human  heart  are  founded  upon  the  poetic 
instinct.  This  is  the  secret  of  chivalry,  of  knightly  gallantry, 
and  gentle  courtesy.  This  underlies  all  refined  taste,  all  deli- 
cate sentiment,  all  high  devotion.  What  Shakespeare  says  of 
music  may  be  said  of  poetry,  and  it  may  be  added  that  the  man 
who  loves  it  not  lives  but  half  a  life. 

Poetry  adapts  itself  to  all  the  wants  of  the  heart,  and  has  an 
expression  for  every  passion.  Here  we  find  that  indescribable 
blending  of  sound  and  sense,  of  varying  words  and  ringing 
metre,  joined  with  changing  thought,  which  so  affects  the  feel- 
ings and  clings  so  closely  to  the  memory.  At  its  bidding  we 
laugh  or  weep,  we  are  enraged  or  at  peace.  It  heightens  the 
ridiculous  or  deepens  the  pathetic;  it  satirizes,  it  ennobles,  it 
mocks,  it  inspires,  it  plays  upon  all  passions,  it  adjusts  itself  to 
all  moods,  and  — 

"Now  melts  into  sorrow,  now  maddens  to  crime." 

§  576.  POETRY   DEFINED. 

— Eoetrymay  be  defined  as  the  expression  of  thought  or 
feeling  by  modes  which  imply  an  excited~br  elevated,  im- 
^agination.        ' 

It  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  fine  arts.     As  sculpture 


Poetry,  521 

expresses  its  meaning  by  fornij  pajntingjjy  color,  music  by 
sound,  so  poetry  aftain^  its  end  by  means  of  language. 

§   577.  VERSIFICATION — PARALLELISM. 

The  outward  form  of  poetry  has  differed  in  different  nations. 
The  chief  of  these  will  now  be  enumerated. 

1.  Parallelism  was  the  form  of  versification  adopted  by  the 
Hebrews,  and  it  is  of  high  antiquity.  It  consists  in  the  ex- 
pression of  a  thought  which  is  immediately  repeated  in  mod- 
ified terms.  For  this  reason  it  has  been  called  the  rhyme  of 
ideas.     The  following  is  an  example  : 

"The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God, 
And  the  firmament  shevveth  his  handiwork  j 
Day  unto  day  uttereth  speech, 
And  night  unto  night  sheweth  knowledge." 

Here  the  thought  expressed  in  the  first  line  is  repeated  in 
the  second,  and  that  of  the  third  in  the  fourth. 

§  578.   QUANTITY. 

2.  This  consists  in  the  arrangement  of  syllables  according 
to  the  time  taken  in  pronouncing  them.  It  is  closely  associated 
with  music,  and  may  be  perceived  whenever  we  sing  any  piece 
of  poetry.  The  modern  fashion  of  reading  classical  poetry  is 
probably  quite  unlike  the  ancient,  and  indicates  nothing  more 
than  a  stress  of  voice  on  long  syllables;  but  there  are  certain 
of  the  Gregorian  chants  which  correspond  with  the  hexameter 
measure,  and  by  singing  to  one  of  these  a  line  of  Virgil's  ^neid 
the  quantity  of  the  syllables  may  be  made  apparent. 

§  579.   ALLITERATION. 

3.  This  was  used  by  the  Teutonic  nations  in  their  early 
poetry.  Similar  initial  sounds  were  given  to  emphatic  words 
or  syllables,  two  of  which  were  generally  in  one  line,  and  one 
in  the  line  which  followed.  This  is  the  versification  of  the  old 
English  poem,  The  Vision  of  Piers  Plowman,  from  which  the 
following  is  an  extract : 

"Barouns  and  Burgeis, 
and  Bondemen  also, 
I  sau  in  that  Semble, 
as  ve  shul  heren  hereafter. 


522  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

Bakers,  Bochers, 
and  Breusters  monye. 
Wollene  websteris 
and  weveris  of  linen. 
Taillours,  tanneris, 
and  tokkeris  bothe. 
Masons,  Minours, 
and  mony  other  craftes." 

§  580.  SEQUENCES. 

4.  These  arose  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Christian  Church. 
The  sentiments  are  exalted  and  poetic,  but  the  form  is  that  of 
prose,  and  the  rhythm  is  apparent  only  in  the  singing.  The 
most  familiar  examples  are  the  Te  Deum  and  the  Gloria  in 
Excelsis.  These  were  originally  framed  upon  the  model  of 
Hebrew  poetry,  but  in  process  of  time  they  lost  the  parallelism 
which  formed  its  chief  characteristic. 

§  581.  GREEK    ECCLESIASTICAL   METRES. 

5.  These  arose  in  the  Eastern  Church,  and  consist  of  a  series 
of  sentences  containing  the  same  number  of  syllables: 

"  With  my  lips  have  I  been  telling  :  of  all  the  judgments  of  Thy  mouth. 
Let  us  break  their  bands  asunder :  and  cast  away  their  cords  from  us. 
I  am  weary  of  my  groaning :  and  every  night  I  wash  my  bed. 
I  am  poured  out  like  water  :  and  all  my  bones  are  out  of  joint. 
For  he  licth  waiting  secret :  -ly  as  a  lion  in  his  den." 

§  582.  ACCENTUATED    METRES. 

6.  In  these  the  measure  is  indicated  by  the  regular  recur- 
rence of  accented  syllables  :  as —  . 

"  The  curfew  t611s  the  kn^U  of  parting  day." 

Accentuated  metres  are  more  widely  diffused  than  any  other, 
and  are  found  in  the  most  ancient  as  well  as  in  the  most  mod- 
ern poetry.  They  exist  in  Indian,  Persian,  and  Arabian  liter- 
ature. Even  Latin  verse  was  originally  formed  on  this  prin- 
ciple; and  although  quantity  was  introduced  from  an  endeavor 
to  imitate  Grecian  models,  yet  the  influence  of  accent  was  re- 
stored in  the  poetry  which  was  afterwards  created  by  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  Upon  this  is  based  the  versification  of  all  the 
civilized   nations  of  modern  times.     It  is  susceptible  of  the 


Poetry.  523 

most  varied  development,  and  may  give  rise  to  the  most  sim- 
ple measures  or  the  most  elaborate;  so  that,  while  on  the  one 
hand  it  may  lend  itself  to  the  nursery  ditty,  on  the  other  hand 
it  may  rival  the  involved  constructions  and  manifold  effects  of 
a  Greek  chorus, 

§  583.   ENGLISH   VERSIFICATION. 

Versification  in  English  jx)etry  depends  upon  feet  and  metres. 
A  foot  is  a  collection  of  syllables,  one  of  which  is  accented.  A 
metre  is  an  assemblage  of  feet. 

Feet  differ  from  one  another  according  to  the  position  of 
the  accented  syllable. 

Metres  differ  from  one  another  according  to  the  number  of 
feet. 

The  feet  in  English  poetry  are  four  in  number — the  iambus, 
the  trochee,  the  anapaest,  and  the  dactyl. 

These  names  have  been  taken  from  the  classical  quantitative 
metres  to  which  they  were  first  applied  ;  but  it  cannot  be  too 
carefully  remembered  that  these  modern  feet  are  very  different 
from  their  ancient  namesakes.  The  relation  between  them  is 
not  that  of  similarity,  but  analogy.  The  ancient  iambus,  for 
instance,  consists  of  a  half  note  followed  by  a  whole  one,  and 
may  be  represented  by  *  1^,  whereas  the  modern  iambus  con- 
sists of  an  unaccented  syllable  followed  by  one  which  is  ac- 
cented. Accent  and  quantity  are  quite  independent  o{  each 
other,  and  between  the  two  there  is  no  resemblance. 

§  584.  IAMBIC    METRES. 

Iambic  metres  are  those  in  which  iambic  feet  predominate. 

The  iambic  foot  consists  of  an  unaccented  syllable  followed 
by  one  which  is  accented,  as  prepare,  convey.  The  following 
are  examples  of  iambic  metres : 

One  foot. 

This  is  found  chiefly  in  lyric  poetry  or  in  humorous  verse. 
It  consists  of  a  single  word  occupying  a  line  by  itself:  as — 

"  She  sleeps, 
My  lady  sleeps." 

"  Love,  rest,  and  home, 
Sweet  hope ! 
LoVd,  tarry'  not,  but  come !" 
Z 


524  Elemefits  of  Rhetoric. 

One  foot  and  a  hal£ 

This  is  employed  under  the  same  circumstances  as  the  pre- 
ceding : 

"And  oa/my  cheek  sweet  kisses  pressed, 
My  mother." 
Two  feet 

This,  like  the  preceding,  is  generally  intermingled  with  longer 
lines,  but  some  lyrical  metres  consist  wholly  of  this : 

"Days  come  and  go 
In  joy  or  woe; 
Days  go  and  come 
In  endless  sum." 

Two  feet  and  a  half 

This  forms  a  beautiful  lyrical  measure,  whether  used  by 
itself  or  with  the  line  of  two  feet : 

*'  What  will  you  do,  love, 
When  I  am  going, 
"With  white  sail  flowing. 
The  seas  beyond." 

"No  shadows  yonder, 
All  light  and  song;     . 
Each  day  I  wonder 

And  sigh  '  How  long 
Shall  time  me  sunder 

From  that  dear  throng!"' 
Three  feet. 
This  is  of  very  common  occurrence  : 

**The  king  was  on  his  throne. 

The  satraps  thronged  the  hall; 
A  thousand  bright  lamps  shone 
O'er  that  high  festival." 

Three  feet  and  a  half. 

This  is  almost  always  found  alternating  with  lines  of  three 

feet: 

"  Jerusalemy'^the  golden. 

With  milk/and  honey  blest, 
Beneath  thy^  contemplation 

Sink  heart  and  voice  opprest" 
Four  feet. 

This  is  used  very  largely  in  narrative  poetry,  such  as  the 
metrical  romance,  and  also  for  lyric  purposes ; 

"The  war  that  for  a  space  did  fail, 
Now  trebly  thundering  swelled  the  gale." 


Poetry.  525 

Four  feet  and  a  half. 

This  is  not  very  common,  and  is  only  used  when  alternating 
with  the  line  of  four  feet : 

"  Ah  me,  how  quick  the  days  are  flitting ! 
I  mind  me  of  a  time  that's  gone, 
When  here  I'd  sit  as  I  am  sitting 
In  this  same  place,  but  not  alone." 

Five  feet. 

This  is  called  the  "  heroic  metre,"  because  it  is  employed 
for  lofty  and  important  subjects  in  epic  or  dramatic  poetry  : 

"Or  view  the  lord. of  the  unerring  bow, 
The  God  of  life  and  poetry  and  light." 

Five  feet  and  a  half. 

This  metre  is  very  largely  used  in  dramatic  poetry,  where  it 
intermingles  with  that  of  five  feet : 

"  To  be,  or  not  to  be,  that  is  the  question." 

"I  come  to  bury  Casar,  not  to  praise  him." 
Six  feet 

This  is  called  the  Alexandrine  verse.  It  is  used  in  ballad 
poetry,  and  also  in  connection  with  the  two  preceding  metres : 

"A  world  is  at  our  feet  as  fragile  as  our  clay." 

"  It  was  the  wild  midnight,  a  storm  was  in  the  sky." 

The  Alexandrine  line  in  ballads  is  often  divided  into  two 
short  lines  of  three  feet  each. 
Six  feet  and  a  half. 
This  is  constantly  used  with  the  preceding : 

"  A  mirror  and  a  bath  for  Beauty's  youngest  daughters." 

Seven  feet. 

This  is  a  well-known  metre,  being  used  for  ballads  and  also 
for  songs  and  hymns.  It  is  called  the  "  common  metre,"  and  is 
generally  divided  into  two  shorter  parts,  one  of  four  feet  and 
the  other  of  three  : 

"  The  melancholy  days  have  come,  the  saddest  of  the  year." 

"The  king  has  come  to  marshal  us  in  a^l  his  armor  drest" 

"John  Gilpin  was  a  citizen 
Of  credit  and  renown." 


526  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

Seven  feet  and  a  half: 

"A  captain  bold  of  Halifax,  who  lived  in  country  quarters." 

«^This  metre,  like  the  preceding,  is  generally  divided  into  two 
portions. 

Eight  feet. 

This  is  called  the  "  long  metre,"  and  is  divided  into  halves 
of  four  feet  each. 

"Aloft  upon  a  hillock  green,  the  lion  king  enthroned  is  seen." 
§  585.  TROCHAIC    METRES. 

Trochaic  metres  are  those  which  are  composed  principally 
of  trochees. 

The  trochee  consists  of  an  accented  syllable  followed  by  one 
which  is  unaccented,  as  gl6ry,  hdnor.  It  is  thus  the  opposite 
of  the  iambus. 

The  following  are  examples  of  trochaic  metres: 

One  foot. 

In  the  more  irregular  metres  a  single  line  may  consist  of 

one  foot : 

"  Sighing, 
Dying, 
Dying  on  the  wide  and  wasteful  deep." 

One  foot  and  a  half. 

This  may  be  seen  in  the  second,  fourth,  and  fifth  lines  of  the 
following  : 

"  God  help  you,  sailors,  at  your  need — 
Spare  the  curse; 
For  some  ships  safe  in  port,  indeed, 
Rot  and  rust. 
Run  to  dust." 
Two  feet. 
This  is  found  in  combination  with  longer  measures:  as — 

**  Deeply  wailing 
Shall  the  true  Messiah  see." 

•*  Strong  Deliverer, 
Be  thou  still  my  strength  and  stay." 

Two  feet  and  a  half. 

This  metre  is  capable  of  being  used  by  itself: 


Poetry.  527 

"  Go  not,  happy  day, 
From  the  shining  fields; 
Go  not,  happy  day. 
Till  the  maiden  yields." 
Three  feet. 

This  is  generally  found  alternating  with  the  measure  imme- 
diately preceding : 

"Now  the  day  is  over, 
Night  is  drawing  nigh, 
Shadows  of  the  even 
Fall  across  the  sky." 

Three  feet  and  a  half 

This  is  a  beautiful  lyrical  measure,  and  is  used  in  many 
favorite  hymns: 

"  Rock  of  Ages,  cleft  for  me, 
Let  me  hide  myself  in  thee." 
Four  feet. 

This  is  another  well-known  metre,  and  when  alternating  with 
the  line  of  three  and  a  half  feet  forms  the  most  popular  of  the 
trochaic  class: 

"Come,  thou  fount  of  every  blessing. 
Tune  my  heart  to  sing  thy  praise." 

Longfellow  has  used  this  metre  of  four  feet  for  prolonged 
narrative  purposes  in  Hiawatha. 
Four  feet  and  a  half: 

"  Emblems  of  the  bright  and  better  land." 

Five  feet. 

This  is  generally  used  to  alternate  with  the  preceding : 

"  Wondrous  truths,  and  manifold  as  wondrous, 
God  hath  written  in  those  stars  above." 

Five  feet  and  a  half: 

"Those  eternal  bowers  man  hath  never  trod." 
Six  feet : 

"Obviously  reading  something  very  funny." 
Six  feet  and  a  half: 

"Over  every  mountain-top  and  down  in  every  glen." 


528  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

Seven  feet : 

"  Early  in  the  morning-time,  when  cloudy  was  the  weather." 

Seven  feet  and  a  half: 

"Thick  with  towns  and  hamlets  studded,  and  with  streams  and  vapors 
gray." 

Eight  feet : 

"  Once  upon  a  midnight  dreary,  as  I  pondered,  weak  and  weary." 

§  586.    ANAPiESTIC    METRES. 

Anapaestic  metres  are  those  in  which  anapaestic  feet  pre- 
dominate. 

The  anapaest  consists  of  two  unaccented  syllables  followed 
by  one  which  is  accented  :  as,  appreh<fnd. 

The  following  are  examples  of  anapaestic  metres  : 

One  foot : 

"The  towering  trunk,  in  the  pride  of  its  place, 
Overthrown." 

One  foot  and  a  half: 

"There  sits  a  bird  on  every  tree. 
With  a  heigh-ho  !" 

Two  feet : 

"Then  a  light,  then  thy  breast, 
And  with  God  be  the  rest." 

Two  feet  and  a  half: 


He  is  gone  from  the  mountain, 
He  is  lost  to  the  forest" 


Three  feet 


"  I  am  monarch  of  all  I  su'rvey, 

My  right  there  is  none  to  dispute ; 
From  the  centre  all  round  to  the  sea 
I  am  lord  of  the  fowl  and  the  brute." 

Three  feet  and  a  half: 

"Thou  hast  wounded  the  spirit  that  loved  thee.* 

Four  feet : 

"  Not  a  drum  was  heard,  nor  a  funeral  note." 


Poetry.  529 

Four  feet  and  a  half: 

"  Thou  art  gone  to  the  grave,  but  we  will  not  deplore  thee." 

Five  feet : 

"  In  the  gathered  intensity  brought  to  the  gray  of  the  hills." 

Five  feet  and  a  half: 
"  He  hath  flown  on  his  steed  to  the  hills  in  the  dusk  of  the  morning." 

Six  feet : 

"  And  the  bees  keep  their  tiresome  whine  round  the  resinous  firs  on  the 

hill." 

Six  feet  and  a  half: 

**And  the  duke's  guard  brings  up  the  rear  for  the  better  prevention  of 
scandals." 

§  587.    DACTYLIC   METRES. 

Dactylic  metres  are  those  in  which  the  dactyl  predominates. 
The  dactyl  consists  of  one  accented  syllable  followed  by  two 
which  are  unaccented :  as,  vanity. 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  dactylic  metres  :  "~ 

One  foot. 

Here,  as  in  other  metres,  a  single  line  may  consist  of  one 

foot: 

"  Cheerily, 
Merrily, 
Fill  up  your  glasses  and  sing." 


One  foot  and  a  half : 
Two  feet : 


-      -^        o    /  — 

"Lift  her  witl)  care." 


"One  more  unfortunate." 

Two  feet  and  a  half: 

"  Rivulet  crossing  my  ground." 
Three  feet : 

"  Still  lay  the  ranks  of  the  enemy." 

Three  feet  and  a  half : 

"Gayly  the  troubadour  touched  his  guitar." 


530  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

Four  feet  : 

"  We  that  had  loved  him  so,  followed  him,  honored  him." 
Four  feet  and  a  half: 

"Pipe  on  her  pastoral  hillock  a  languid  note.** 
Five  feet : 

"Sweetest  and  best  of  the  rivers  that  water  the  valley." 
Five  feet  and  a  half  : 

"  Perfectly  beautiful,  let  it  be  granted  her  where  is  the  fault** 
Six  feet : 

"In  the  Acadian  land,  on  the  shores  of  the  Basin  of  Minas." 

§  588.    NOMENCLATURE   OF    METRES. 

Various  systems  of  nomenclature  are  applied  to  modern 
metres.  The  one  adopted  above  is  plain  and  simple.  Some 
writers  prefer  the  classical  nomenclature  with  slight  modifica- 
tions.    The  following  table  will  explain  its  nature  : 

Metre  of  one  foot Monometer. 

"  one  foot  and  a  half Monometer  hypermeter. 

"  two  feet Dimeter. 

"  two  feet  and  a  half Dimeter  hypermeter. 

"  three  feet Trimeter. 

"  three  feet  and  a  half Trimeter  hypermeter. 

"  four  feet Tetrameter. 

"  four  feet  and  a  half. Tetrameter  hypermeter. 

**  five  feet Pentameter. 

"  five  feet  and  a  half. .    Pentameter  hypermeter. 

"  six  feet Hexameter. 

"  six  feet  and  a  half Hexameter  hypermeter. 

"  seven  feet Heptameter. 

"  seven  feet  and  a  half Heptameter  hypermeter. 

"  eight  feet Octometer. 

In  addition  to  this,  another  system  is  in  popular  use,  and 
may  be  found  in  many  hymn-books.  The  iambic  metres  are 
marked  L.  M.,  or  long  metre,  which  is  the  line  of  four  feet ; 
CM.,  common  metre,  which  is  the  line  of  four  feet  followed 
by  another  of  three  feet;  S.  M.,  short  metre,  two  lines  of  three 
feet  each,  followed  by  a  third  line  of  four  feet,  and  a  fourth  of 


Poetry.  53 1 

three.  Trochaic,  anapaestic,  and  dactylic  metres  are  indicated 
by  numerals  which  represent  the  number  of  syllables  in  a  line. 
Thus,  "6's,"  "7's,"  and  "  8's  "  indicate  lines  of  three,  three 
and  a  half,  and  four  trochaic  feet ;  "  9's,"  anapaestic  lines  of 
three  feet;  "lo's,"  anapaestic  and  dactylic  lines  of  three  and  a 
half  feet;  "  i  I's,"  dactylic  lines  of  three  and  a  half  feet ;  "  12's" 
and  "  13's,"  anapaestic  lines  of  four  and  four  and  a  half  feet. 

§  589.    INTERCHANGE   OF    FEET. 

The  feet  above  mentioned  interchange  with  one  another 
under  certain  circumstances,  and  in  this  way  great  variety  is 
given  to  the  flow  of  the  verse.  The  chief  modes  of  interchange 
are  the  following: 

The  trochee  takes  the  place  of  the  iambus.  This  occurs 
most  frequently  in  the  first  foot  of  the  line : 

"  High  on  a  throne  of  royal  state." 

"Arms  and  the  man  I  sing." 

"  Father  of  all !  in  every  age." 

Sometimes  it  is  introduced  into  other  places.  In  the  third 
foot:  as — 

"To  do  aught  good  never  will  be  our  task." 

In  the  first  and  second  foot :  as — 

"  Universal  reproach,  far  worse  to  bear." 
In  the  first  and  third  foot :  as — 

"  Stood  by  their  cars,  waiting  the  throned  morn." 
In  the  second  foot :  as — 

"  I  love — oh,  how  I  love  to  ride  !" 
The  anapaest  may  interchange  with  the  iambus : 
"  Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit" 
"From  their  foundations  loosening  to  and  fro." 

"Above  the  Aonian  mount." 

"Created  hugest  that  swim  the  ocean  stream." 

"Before  all  temples  the  upright  heart  and  pure." 

This  is  very  common  in  ballad  poetry : 

Z  2 


532  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 

"Across  the  Ocean's  troubled  breast. 
The  base-born  Norman  came, 
To  win  for  his  helm  a  kingly  crest, 
For  his  sons  a  kingly  name." 

The  trochaic  metre  admits  dactyls  : 

"  As  the  many-wintered  crow  that  leads  the  clanging  rookery  home." 

The  anapaestic  metre  admits  the  iambus.  This  is  so  com- 
mon that  it  is  not  easy  to  find  anapaestic  lines  without  such 
feet  : 

"  We  buried  him  darkly,  at  dead  of  night. 
The  sods  with  our  bayonets  turning." 

The  dactylic  metre  admits  the  trochee  : 

'*  Distant,  secluded  still,  the  little  village  of  Grand  Pr^." 

§  590.    THE   LONG   CATALECTIC   SYLLABLE. 

Sometimes  a  single  syllable  is  used  in  the  place  of  a  whole 
foot.  This  is  called  catalectic,  from  the  long  syllable  of  that 
name  in  classical  poetry,  and  may  interchange  with  feet  of 
three  syllables  as  well  as  with  those  of  two. 

In  the  following  passages  it  is  found  substituted  for  iambic 
and  trochaic  feet : 

"  Weep,  weep,  weep,  and  weep 
For  pauper,  dolt,  and  slave." 

"  Wild,  wild  wind,  wilt  thou  never  cease  thy  sighing ; 
Dark,  dark  night,  wilt  thou  never  pass  away ; 
Cold,  cold  church,  in  thy  death-sleep  lying, 
Thy  Lent  is  past,  thy  Passion  here,  but  not  thine  Easter-day." 

In  the  following  passages  it  is  found  substituted  for  ana- 
paestic and  dactylic  feet : 

"  Stitch,  stitch,  stitch, 

In  poverty,  hunger,  and  dirt" 

*'  Work,  work,  work, 

When  the  cock  is  crowing  aloof" 

"  Break,  break,  break, 

On  thy  cold  gray  stones,  O  sea  ! 
And  I  would  that  my  tongue  could  utter 
The  thoughts  that  arise  in  me." 

«  March,  march,  Ettrick  and  Teviotdale." 


Poetry.  533 

§  591.    INTERCHANGE   OF   METRES. 

Metres  also  interchange  with  one  another.  The  chief  modes 
are  the  following: 

Iambic  and  trochaic.  These  intermingle  readily  in  measures 
of  four  feet : 

"  Come,  and  trip  it  as  you  go, 
On  the  light  fantastic  toe ; 
And  in  thy  right  hand  bring  with  thee 
The  mountain  nymph,  sweet  Liberty." 

"But  thou,  O  Hope,  with  eyes  so  fair, 
What  was  thy  delighted  measure? 
Still  it  whispered  promised  pleasure. 
And  bade  the  lovely  scene  at  distance  hail." 

Anapaestic  and  iambic  metres : 

"  The'  doutle,  double,  double  beat 
OY  thV  thundering  drum." 

"Now  strike  the  golden  lyre  again. 
Break  his  bonds  of  sleep  asunder. 
And  rouse  him  like  a  rattling  peal  of  thunder. 
*  Revenge  !  Revenge  !'  Timotheus  cries. 
See  the  Furies  arise ; 
See  the  snakes  that  they  rear, 
How  they  hiss  in  the  air !" 

Dactylic  and  anapaestic  metres  : 

"  Wearily,  wearily,  all  that  night, 

That  live-long  night,  did  the  hours  go  by." 

"Lightly  they'll  talk  of  the  spirit  that's  gone, 
And  o'er  his  cold  ashes  upbraid  him." 

"Slowly  and  sadly  we  laid  him  down. 

From  the  field  of  his  fame  fresh  and  gory." 

The  addition  of  a  syllable  can  transform  a  trochaic  to  an 
iambic  metre,  or  a  dactylic  to  an  anapaestic : 

"On  a  mountain, 
By  a  fountain." 


By  a  slight  change  this  becomes  iambic  : 

.    "  Upon  a  mountain, 
Beside  a  fountain." 

"Hail  to  the  chief  who  in  triumph  advances.' 


534  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

In  the  same  way  this  becomes  anapaestic : 

"  All  hail  to  the  chief  who  in  triumph  advances." 

§   592.    OTHER    FEET. 

In  addition  to  the  feet  above  mentioned,  there  are  others 
which  are  sometimes  enumerated.  In  some  treatises  on  Eng- 
lish prosody  the  entire  list  of  quantitative  feet  is  adopted ;  in 
others,  however,  only  a  few  of  these  are  selected,  and  these  are 
chiefly  the  spondee,  the  amphibrach,  the  cretic,  and  the  cho- 
riambus. 

The  spondee  in  quantitative  metres  consists  of  two  long 
syllables,  and  in  the  accentuated  metres  it  ought  to  consist  of 
two  accented  syllables.  Although  there  may  be  an  occasional 
foot  formed  of  two  important  words  which  may  have  this  char- 
acter, yet  the  whole  genius  of  accentuated  verse  is  opposed  to 
such  a  foot,  and  by  far  the  greater  number  of  so-called  spon- 
dees are  either  trochees  or  iambuses.  Thus  the  classical  dac- 
tylic hexameter  is  composed  of  dactyls  and  spondees,  while 
the  accentuated  dactylic  hexameter  is  composed  of  dactyls 
and  trochees.  In  the  classical  metres  the  anapaests  are  as- 
sociated with  spondees,  in  the  modern  with  iambuses.  The 
nearest  approach  to  a  true  spondee  is  in  such  a  line  as — 

"The  force  of  those  dire  arms." 

There  is  no  such  thing  as  a  spondaic  line  in  accentuated 
verse. 

The  amphibrach  is  a  name  given  by  some  to  a  foot  with  an 
accented  syllable  between  two  which  are  unaccented.     The 
following  is  set  down  as  a  metre  composed  of  such  feet : 
"  How  dear  to  this  heart  are  the  scenes  of  my  childhood" 

This,  however,  is  merely  an  anapaestic  line  of  four  feet  and 
a  half,  and  is  constantly  found  in  all  anapaestic  systems.  The 
following  is  an  example  : 

"Thou  art  gone  to  the  grave,  but  we  will  not  deplore  thee, 
Though  sorrow  and  darkness  encompass  the  tomb : 
The  Saviour  has  passed  through  its  portals  before  thee, 
And  the  lamp  of  his  love  is  thy  guide  through  the  gloom." 

It  is  evident  that  the  second  and  third  lines  of  this  stanza 
have  the  same  anapaestic  metre  as  the  first  and  fourth.     To 


Poetry.  535 

call  them  by  another  name  would  be  merely  to  multiply  feet 
and  metres,  when  those  already  existing  are  sufficient. 

The  cretic,  or  amphimacer.  These  terms  are  used  to  des- 
ignate feet  composed  of  two  accented  syllables,  separated  by 
one  which  is  unaccented  :  as — 

"  Side  by  side." 

"Fly  no  more." 

This,  however,  is  generally  nothing  else  than  a  trochaic  line 
of  one  foot  and  a  half,  or  one  foot  and  a  catalectic  syllable. 

The  choriambus.  This  consists  of  a  trochee  followed  by  an 
iambus :  as —  /  , 

"Arms  and  the  man." 

Sometimes  the  so-called  choriambus  is  a  dactylic  line  of  one 
foot  and  a  half,  as  in  the  second  line  of  the  following : 

"One  more  unfortunate, 
Weary  of  breath." 

§  593.    THE   CiESURAL   PAUSE, 

The  caesural  pause  is  a  rest  in  some  part  of  the  longer  lines. 
It  is  of  most  importance  in  the  heroic  metre,  or  in  the  iambic 
line  of  five  and  five  and  a  half  feet.  By  its  proper  treatment 
the  poet  is  able  to  give  a  varied  music  to  his  verse  which  can 
be  attained  in  no  other  way.  When  the  pause  falls  always  in 
the  same  place  it  leads  to  monotony,  and  it  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  vary  its  position  as  much  as  possible. 

In  the  heroic  line  the  caesural  pause  occurs  most  frequently 
in  the  middle  of  the  third  foot : 

"No  more  shall  nation      against  nation  rise, 
Nor  ardent  warriors      meet  with  baleful  eyes, 
Nor  fields  with  gleaming  steel      be  covered  o'er; 
The  brazen  trumpets      kindle  rage  no  more. 
But  useless  lances      into  scythes  shall  bend, 
And  the  broad  falchion      in  a  ploughshare  end." 

It  occurs  frequently  at  the  end  of  the  second  foot : 

"Glows  in  the  stars,         refreshes  in  the  breeze." 

"Achilles'  wrath      to  Greece  the  direful  spring." 

"  For  forms  of  faith       let  senseless  bigots  fight, 
He  can't  be  wrong      whose  life  is  in  the  right." 


53^  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

It  also  occurs  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot : 

"Arms  and  the  man  I  sing,       who  forced  by  fate." 
"She  fed  within  her  veins      a  flame  unseen." 

In  the  poetry  of  Pope  the  caesural  pause  occurs  most  fre- 
quently in  these  places,  and  by  skilful  interchange  he  secures 
variety. 

In  the  poetry  of  Milton  the  pause  is  varied  more  than  in 
that  of  any  other  English  poet,  and  by  perpetually  changing  it 
he  is  able  to  obtain  the  most  felicitous  metrical  effects.  The 
following  lines  will  exhibit  his  manner  in  this  respect : 

"At  once,       as  far  as  angel's  ken  he  views 
The  dismal  situation,      waste  and  wild, 
A  dungeon  horrible,       on  all  sides  round 
As  one  great  furnace  flamed,       yet  from  those  flames 
No  light,      but  rather  darkness  visible 
Served  only  to  discover      sights  of  woe, 
Regions  of  sorrow,      doleful  shades,      where  peace 
And  rest  can  never  dwell,       hope  never  comes 
That  comes  to  all,      but  torture  without  end 
Still  urges,      and  a  fiery  deluge  fed 
With  ever-burning  sulphur      unconsumed." 

In  iambic  and  trochaic  measures  of  six  feet  and  upwards 
the  pause  falls  almost  invariably  in  one  place,  and  this  has  led 
to  the  division  of  such  lines  into  shorter  ones.  Even  here  the 
pause  may  be  varied,  and  with  the  most  pleasing  effect. 

In  the  longer  anapjEStic  and  dactylic  metres  the  variation  of 
the  caesural  pause  must  be  attended  to,  especially  where  there 
is  protracted  narrative.  This  may  be  observed  in  portions  of 
Tennyson's  Maud,  in  the  Saul  of  Browning,  and  in  Longfel- 
low's Evangeline. 

§  594.    RHYME. 

The  word  rhyme  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  rim^  and 
is  often  more  correctly  spelled  rime.  It  means  the  concord  of 
sounds  in  words  at  the  ends  of  lines. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  rhyme — assonant  and  consonant. 
Assonant  rhymes  are  those  in  which  the  vowels  only  are  in 
concord,  as,  "  hat,"  "  man."  These  prevail  very  extensively  in 
Spanish  poetry,  and  also  in  Irish  and  Scottish  songs  : 

"  The  groves  of  Blarney 
They  are  so  charming." 


Poetry,  537 

"  Ye  banks  and  braes,  and  streams  around 
The  castle  o'  Montgomery  ; 
Green  be  your  woods  and  fair  your  flowers, 
Your  waters  ever  drumlie." 

Assonant  rhymes  may  be  found  in  English  poetry.  The  two 
Brownings  show  a  tendency  to  make  use  of  it  on  a  larger  scale 
than  was  formerly  allowed.  Tennyson  also  admits  them  in 
his  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade  : 

"  Half  a  league,  half  a  league, 
Half  a  league  onward, 
All  in  the  valley  of  death 
Rode  the  Six  Hundred." 

Many  so-called  "imperfect"  or  "faulty"  rhymes  are  justifi- 
able on  the  principle  of  assonance. 

Consonant  rhymes  are  those  in  which  both  vowels  and  con- 
sonants are  in  concord,  as,  "man,"  "ran." 

This  is  the  form  of  rhyme  which  prevails  in  English  verse. 
In  order  to  give  variety,  certain  rhymes  are  called  allowable, 
as  "cry,"  "victory"  — "join,"  "shine"  — "wind,"  "mind"— 
"sound,"  "wound."  In  English  poetry  a  syllable  is  not  allow- 
ed to  rhyme  with  itself,  as,  "receive,"  "conceive." 

Rhymes  are  single,  double,  and  triple,  as,  "all,"  "call" — 
"glory,"  "story" — "vanity,"  "humanity."  Single  and  double 
rhymes  are  also  called  respectively  male  and  female. 

§  595.    BLANK   VERSE. 

The  name  blank  verse  is  applied  to  the  iambic  metre  of 
five  or  five  and  a  half  feet,  without  rhyme. 

Although  well-chosen  rhymes  confer  an  exquisite  beauty, 
yet  they  are  by  no  means  essential  to  the  highest  versificfation, 
and  they  are  even  detrimental  in  epic  and  dramatic  composi- 
tion. The  iambic  measure  is  capable  of  so  much  variety  that 
it  may  be  made  to  exhibit  the  highest  kind  of  harmony.  When 
rhyme  is  not  used,  the  poet  is  forced  to  bring  out  those  more 
subtle  effects  which  depend  upon  rhythm. 

The  chief  ways  in  which  the  poetical  rhythm  may  be  varied 
are  as  follows : 

I.  By  the  proper  choice  of  words  and  verbal  terminations. 
A  large  number  of  terms  have  a  poetical  value  on  account  of 


538  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

their  sound,  meaning,  or  association,  and  the  demand  for  them 
is  more  imperative  in  blank  verse  than  elsewhere. 

2.  By  the  interchange  of  feet.  The  laws  of  English  verse 
are  liberal,  and  all  the  poetic  feet  may  be  made  use  of  in  the 
iambic  metre. 

3.  By  the  caesural  pause.  The  effect  of  this  is  more  striking 
in  blank  verse  than  in  other,  kinds,  for  by  the  omission  of 
rhymes  the  lines  may  be  made  to  run  into  one  another;  and 
by  varying  the  pause  new  rhythms  may  arise  with  new  metrical 
effects.  This  is  continually  e.xhibited  by  Milton,  and  may  be 
seen  in  the  following  passage,  in  which,  by  arranging  the  lines 
according  to  the  pauses,  the  rhythmical  effect  is  suggestive  of 
metrical  combinations  far  more  varied  and  harmonious  than 
the  normal  iambic : 

"  If  thou  be'st  he, 
But  oh !  how  fallen, 
How  changed  from  him 
Who  in  the  happy  realms  of  light, 
Clothed  with  transcendent  brightness, 
Didst  outshine  myriads  though  bright 
If  he  whom  mutual  league, 
United  thoughts  and  counsels. 
Equal  hope  and  hazard, 
In  the  glorious  enterprise 
Joined  with  me  once, 
Now  misery  hath  joined  in  equal  ruin. 
Into  what  pit  thou  seest, 
From  what  height  fallen, 
So  much  the  stronger  proved 
He  with  his  thunder. 
And  till  then  who  knew 
The  force  of  those  dire  arms." 

§  596.    NOMENCLATURE   OF   VERSES. 

We  have  next  to  consider  the  nomenclature  of  verses. 

A  verse  is  a  single  line  of  poetry. 

Couplet  By  this  is  meant  two  consecutive  lines  rhyming 
together. 

Triplet.  This  consists  of  three  consecutive  lines  rhyming 
together. 

Stanza.  By  this  is  meant  a  group  of  several  verses,  from 
three  upwards.     The  chief  stanzas  are  the  following  : 


Poetry,  539 

The  stanza  of  three  lines.  The  best  example  of  this  is  the 
Dies  Irae. 

The  stanza  of  four  lines.  This  is  the  most  common  of  all, 
and  familiar  examples  may  be  found  in  hymns  of  common  and 
long  metre. 

The  stanza  of  five  lines.  This  is  of  uncommon  occurrence. 
The  best  example  is  Shelley's  Ode  to  a  Skylark. 

The  stanza  of  six  lines.  This  is  very  common.  An  exam- 
ple may  be  found  in  Byron's  Isles  of  Greece. 

The  stanza  of  seven  lines.  This  is  uncommon.  It  is  used 
in  Chaucer's  Man  of  Lawes  Tale. 

The  stanza  of  eight  lines.  This  is  very  common,  and  is  em- 
ployed in  lengthened  narrative.  It  is  a  favorite  with  the  Italian, 
Spanish,  and  Portuguese  poets.  It  is  used  by  Byron  in  his 
Beppo  and  Don  Juan. 

The  stanza  of  nine  lines.  This  appears  under  various  forms, 
the  best  of  which  is  that  which  is  called  the  Spenserian,  from 
the  fact  that  it  was  used  by  Spenser  in  his  Faerie  Queene. 

Stanzas  may  be  found  of  greater  length,  but  they  are  of 
rare  occurrence,  and  are  used  chiefly  in  lyrical  poetry. 

Strophe.  This  is  a  system  of  verses  in  lyrical  poetry,  to 
which  there  is  another  system,  called  antistrophe,  correspond- 
ing in  metre  and  in  length.  Examples  may  be  found  in  Gray's 
Bard. 

Canto.     This  is  a  division  of  a  narrative  poem. 

Chorus.  This  is  the  part  of  a  song  in  which  the  company 
join  with  the  singer. 

Refrain.  This  term  is  applied  to  words  repeated  at  the  end 
of  stanzas,  as  in  Longfellow's  Excelsior. 

§  597.    SPECIES   OF   POETRY. 

Poetry  is  divided  into  the  following  species  :  Narrative,  lyric, 
dramatic,  descriptive,  didactic,  pastoral,  satirical,  humorous. 

§  598.    NARRATIVE. 

Narrative  poetry  includes  all  narratives  in  verse.  These  are 
of  various  kinds,  which  will  be  considered  in  order. 

I.  Epic  poetry.  The  epic  poem  is  devoted  to  some  elevated 
theme  in  history,  legend,  mythology,  or  religion,  and  has  been 
called  the  concentrated  story  of  an  age  or  generation.     It  em- 


£40  Elements  of  Rhetoric. 

ploys  a  metre  which,  when  used  in  prolonged  narrative,  may 
exhibit  the  greatest  variety.  The  chief  examples  of  the  epic 
poem  are  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey,  the  -^neid,  the  Divina  Com- 
media,  Gerusalemme  Liberata,  the  Lusiad,  and  Paradise  Lost. 
To  these  may  be  added  the  Indian  Mahabharata,  the  Spanish 
Cid,  the  German  Nibelungen-Lied,  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  (or 
Danish)  Beowulf. 

2.  The  metrical  romance.  This  includes  narratives  of  he- 
roic enterprise,  chivalry,  and  love.  The  prevailing  metre  is 
the  iambic  line  of  four  feet.  The  metrical  romance  of  the 
Normans  gave  the  key-note  to  this  class  of  poems.  The  most 
familiar  examples  in  English  literature  are  those  of  Scott  and 
Byron. 

3.  The  ballad.  Like  the  metrical  romance,  this  is  devoted 
to  the  exploits  of  war  and  the  display  of  the  tender  affections; 
but  it  is  much  shorter,  and  at  the  same  time  of  simpler  con- 
struction. The  chief  ballad  metres  are  iambic  lines  of  six  and 
seven  feet,  and  trochaic  lines  of  seven  and  a  half.  Chevy 
Chase,  the  Babes  in  the  Wood,  Macaulay's  Lays  of  Ancient 
Rome,  and  Aytoun's  Lays  of  the  Cavaliers  may  be  cited  as 
examples. 

4.  The  tale.  This  includes  such  narratives  in  poetry  as  can- 
not be  classified  under  any  of  the  above;  such  as  Longfellow's 
Evangeline,  Montgomery's  World  before  the  Flood,  or  Tenny- 
son's Princess.  This  group  is  a  miscellaneous  one,  and  has 
no  distinctive  characteristics. 

5.  Historic  narrative.  This  class  includes  chiefly  the  rhym- 
ing chronicles,  such  as  that  of  Robert  of  Gloucester.  Very  few 
examples  are  to  be  found  in  later  poetry. 

§  599.    LYRIC    POETRY. 

Lyric  poetry  is  the  utterance  of  excited  imagination  or  ele- 
vated feeling.  It  has  been  called  the  expression  of  a  single 
jet  of  feeling,  or  the  embodiment  of  one  passion.  It  is  always 
brief  in  its  treatment,  but  employs  a  larger  variety  of  metre 
than  any  other  kind  of  poetry. 

The  following  are  the  chief  forms  of  lyric  poetry . 

I.  The  song.  This  name  is  given  to  those  lyrical  poems 
which  are  intended  to  be  sung.  Of  these  there  are  two  classes 
— secular  and  religious. 


Poetry.  541 

The  secular  class  includes  the  following  : 

Amatory  songs.  One  of  the  best  examples  of  these  is  Ben 
Jonson's  "  Drink  to  me  only  with  thine  eyes." 

One  kind  of  amatory  song  is  called  the  madrigal,  which  is 
always  short  and  in  the  iambic  metre. 

War  songs,  as,  "  Scots  wha  hae  wi'  Wallace  bled." 

National  songs,  as,  "  God  save  the  Queen." 

Political  songs,  as  the  "Marseillaise." 

Convivial  songs,  as,  "  Sparkling  and  bright." 

Domestic  songs,  as,  "John  Anderson,  my  Jo." 

To  these  may  be  added  satirical  and  humorous  songs. 

The  religious  class  includes  hymns,  psalms,  and  canticles. 

The  hymn  is  a  religious  song. 

The  psalm  is  a  hymn,  but  the  term  is  restricted  to  those  of 
the  Bible,  as  the  Psalms  of  David. 

The  canticle  is  a  religious  song  without  metre,  including  es- 
pecially those  of  the  New  Testament,  such  as  the  "  Magnificat." 

2.  The  ode.  This  is  a  lyric  poem,  not  designed  for  singing. 
It  may  express  quiet  thought  or  the  most  impassioned  feeling ; 
and  while  its  structure  is  often  simple,  at  other  times  it  em- 
ploys the  most  elaborate  versification.  Wordsworth's  Cuckoo 
and  Ode  on  Immortality  exhibit  the  two  extremes,  both  of  form 
and  sentiment. 

3.  The  elegy.  This  is  a  poem  devoted  to  mournful  sub- 
jects, and  has  been  called  a  memorial  song  of  regret  or  lam- 
entation. Milton's  Lycidas  and  Gray's  Elegy  are  well  known 
examples.  Tennyson's  In  Memoriam  is  a  collection  of  elegiac 
poems. 

4.  The  sonnet.  This  is  a  poem  of  fourteen  lines,  in  the 
iambic  metre  of  five  or  five  and  a  half  feet,  containing  the  un- 
folding of  one  thought  or  idea. 

§  600.    DRAMATIC   POETRY. 

Dramatic  poetry  is  devoted  to  tragedy  and  comedy. 

Tragedy  has  been  called  the  struggle  of  individuals  against 
destiny;  comedy,  the  portrayal  of  the  ludicrous  elements  which 
enter  into  existence.  These  have  already  been  considered  at 
sufficient  lengthy 

The  metre  of  dramatic  poetry  in  English  is  the  same  as  that 
which  is  employed  in  epic,  namely,  the  heroic  line,  or  the 


542  Elements  of  RJietoric. 

iambic  line  of  five  or  five  and  a  half  feet.  Lyrical  poetry 
enters  largely  into  the  drama,  and  tragedy  and  comedy  are 
often  intermingled.  The  lyrical  drama  is  that  kind  of  dra- 
matic poetry  which  is  designed  to  be  sung  with 'a  musical 
accompaniment,  as  the  Italian  opera. 

§  60 1.    DESCRIPTIVE   POETRY. 

Descriptive  poetry  consists  chiefly  of  description,  although 
narrative  may  be  intermingled.  Examples  of  this  may  be  found 
in  Thomson's  Seasons,  Cowper's  Task,  and  Byron's  Childe 
Harold. 

§  602.    DIDACTIC    POETRY. 

Didactic  poetry  comprehends  that  which  is  written  for  the 
purpose  of  conveying  instruction.  It  may  be  scientific,  as  the 
De  Rerum  Natura  of  Lucretius;  philosophical,  as  the  Excur- 
sion of  Wordsworth;  critical,  as  Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism; 
moral  or  religious,  as  Young's  Night  Thoughts  and  Tennyson's 
In  Memoriam. 

§  603.    PASTORAL    POETRY. 

Pastoral  poetry  is  devoted  to  the  expression  of  tender  senti- 
ments, especially  the  amatory  passion,  intermingled  with  pas- 
sages of  description.  These  most  frequently  assume  the  form 
of  dialogue.  Theocritus  is  the  father  of  pastoral  poetry.  The 
Bucolics  of  Virgil  are  familiar  to  every  schoolboy.  The  best 
example  in  English  literature  is  Allan  Ramsay's  Gentle  Shep- 
herd. The  taste  for  this  class  of  poetry  is  extinct  at  the  pres- 
ent day. 

§  604.    SATIRICAL    POETRY. 

Satirical  poetry  includes  all  which  is  devoted  to  purposes  of 
satire,  and  has  already  been  suflficiently  discussed. 

§  605.    HUMOROUS    POETRY. 

Humorous  poetry  includes  all  which  is  devoted  to  the  ridic- 
ulous without  satire. 

§  606.   MANY  POEMS   SHARE  THE  CHARACTERISTICS  OF   SEVERAL 

CLASSES. 

There  are  many  poems  which  cannot  be  assigned  strictly  to 


Poetry,  543 

any  one  of  the  above  classes,  but  share  the  characteristics  of 
several.  Thus  Childe  Harold  is  descriptive  and  didactic,  with 
a  slight  thread  of  narrative.  In  Memoriam  is  didactic  and 
lyrical.  The  Princess  is  narrative  and  didactic.  Maud  is 
narrative  and  lyrical. 

§  607.    NEW    DEVELOPMENT   IN    VERSIFICATION. 

The  present  age  of  English  poetry  has  been  distinguished 
for  the  development  of  its  versification.  Several  metres,  for- 
merly used  for  lyrical  purposes  only,  have  been  successfully 
applied  to  long  narrative  themes,  such  as  the  dactylic  and 
trochaic  by  Longfellow  in  his  Evangeline  and  Hiawatha,  and 
the  anapajstic  by  Tennyson  in  his  Maud.  In  addition  to  this, 
new  rhythmical  effects  have  been  introduced  into  lyrical  poetry, 
with  greater  freedom  and  flexibility  in  the  manipulation  of  syl- 
lables. In  this  pursuit  Tennyson  has  led  the  way,  and  Swin- 
burne has  carried  it  farther  than  any  other.  These  and  others 
have  disclosed  fresh  resources  in  our  language,  and  their  works 
indicate  an  advance  into  new  departments  of  metrical  harmony 
by  which  the  poetry  of  the  future  will  be  enriched. 


INDEX. 


Abandon  in  style,  239. 

Abruptness  of  transition,  305. 

Absolute  beautiful,  411. 

Abstract  put  for  concrete,  128. 

Accent  in  English,  263. 

Accentuated  metres,  582. 

Accumulation,  149. 

Accumulative  invention,  319. 

Action,  in  introductions,  394  ;  unity  in,  423. 

Adaptation  of  speech  to  audience,  556. 

Addison,  style  of,  4 ;  perspicuity  of,  7 ;  sim- 
plicity of,  ID ;  quoted,  147,  266,  275,  284 ; 
classical  English  of,  256;  elegant  intro- 
duction of,  286 ;  persuasion  of,  315. 

Adjective,  position  of,  50. 

Adjuration,  486. 

Admonition,  485. 

Adoration,  486. 

Advancement  of  Learning,  Bacon's. 
313- 

Adverb,  position  of,  50. 

iEneid,  conclusion  of,  401. 

iEschines,  status  of,  329 ;  charges  Demos- 
thenes with  being  too  rhetorical,  306 ;  or- 
der of  thought  in  speech  against  Ctesi- 
phon,  350. 

iEschylus,  metaphor  of,  108;  quoted,  140: 
origin  of  drama,  567  ;  aim  of,  569. 

^sop's  fables,  114. 

iEsthetic  emotions,  408. 

^Esthetics,  409. 

iEthiopics  of  Heliodorus,  472. 

Affectation,  268. 

AflFections,  enumerated,  408 ;  influence  on 
literature  of  the,  470;  literature  of  the, 
476. 

Affluence  of  style,  59. 


[The  figures  denote  sections.] 

I  Aims  of  composition,  to  instruct,  313  ;  to  con- 
vince, 314;  to  persuade,  315;  to  please, 
316;  union  of  different  aims,  317. 

Aitiologia,  523. 

Allegory,  112. 

Allison,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Alliteration,  a  figure  o(  186 ;  inversification, 
579- 

Allusion,  118:  historical,  119;  literary,  120; 
distinguished  from  quotation,  121  ;  in  il- 
lustrative style,  249. 

Amatory  songs,  599. 

Ambition,  467. 

American  humor,  435. 

American  oratory,  555. 

American  Taxation,  speech  by  Burke  on, 
status  of,  329 ;  generalization  of,  383 ; 
argument  from  experience  against,  37a  ; 
transition  in  speech  on,  378. 

Americanisms,  41. 

Ames  Fisher,  quoted,  164. 

Amphibrach,  592. 

Amplification — one  of  the  augumentative  fig- 
ures, 144 ;  defined,  145 ;  by  dwelling  on 
details,  146 ;  by  direct  statement,  147 ;  by 
comparison,  148;  by  accumulation,  149; 
coUectio,  aggregatio,  150;  synathroismus, 
151;  diasceue,  152;  synezeugmenon,  153; 
epexergasia,  154;  dinumeratio,  155;  de- 
scription, 156;  ecloge,  157;  hypotyposis, 
158;  metastasis,  159;  in  argument,  379. 

Anacoenosis,  511. 

Anacoluthon,  211. 

Ahadiplosis,  i8o. 

Analepsis,  219. 

Analogy,  Butler's,  style  of,  235. 


of. 


Affluent  style  distinguished  from  fluent,  258.         373- 


I  Analogy,  comparison  of,  93  ;  argument  from. 


Agamemnon  of  iEschylus,  dramatic  order  of 

thought  in,  352. 
Ages  of  literature,  4. 
Aggregatio,  150. 

Agreement,  method  of,  J.  S.  Mill's,  366. 
Agricola  of  Tacitus,  conclusion  of,  403. 
Aim  of  oraior,  55S. 


Analysis  and  synthesis,  338 ;  for  clearness  of 

statement,  377. 
Anamnesis,  520. 
Anangc*eum,  513. 
Anapaestic  metre,  586. 
Anastrophe,  191. 
Anathema,  473. 


546 


Index, 


"And"  repeated,  364. 

Anecdotes,  a  source  of  allusion,  lao;  used  in 
illustrative  style,  251. 

Anglo-Saxon  words  conducive  to  simplicity, 
12  ;  percentage  of,  in  different  authors,  13  ; 
the  essential  element  in  the  Elnglish  lan- 
guage, 14 ;  predominates  in  the  roost  pop- 
ular books,  15 ;  power  of  compounding 
words,  4S :  excess  of  metaphors  in  poetry, 
to8 ;  excess  of  epithets,  140 ;  alliterative 
verse  in,  186. 

Animation  of  style,  239. 

Annals,  order  of  thought  in,  343. 

Annominatio,  173. 

Answers  to  objections  in  oratory,  s>4- 

Antanaclasis,  123,  451- 

Antecedent  and  consequent,  incongruity  m, 
432. 

Anterresis,  524. 

Anth>'pophora.  525. 

Anticipation  of  objections  in  oratory,  525. 

Anticlimax,  168. 

Antimeria,  123. 

Antimetaboie,  79. 

Antistropbe,  178,  596. 

Antithesis — definition  ai,  74 ;  utility  tt,  75  ; 
efiecthreDCM  of.  76 ;  oompucd  with  plain 
■Utement,  77 ;  various  form*  of.  78 ;  anti- 
metaboie, 7^  paradtastole,  80:  synoe- 
ceosis  or  enantiosis,  81 ;  osyimn-on,  82 ; 
parison,  isocdon,  83  ;  prosapodosta,  84. 

Antooomasia.  128. 

Apollonius  of  Tyana,  quoted,  212,  529. 

Apology  of  Socrates,  311. 

Apophthegm,  76,  224,  389. 

Aporia,  527. 

Aposiopesis,  212. 

Apostrophe,  1 16 ;  with  exclamation,  197. 

Apparent  intent,  in  oratory,  530. 

Appeal,  486. 

Appended  clauses,  278. 

Appositio,  296. 

Arabian  m>thology,  463. 

Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments,  a  source  of 
allusion,  120;  aim  ot,  316;  plot  of,  353; 
verisimilitude  in,  369 ;  love  of  splendor  in 
descriptions  in,  468. 

Archaism,  37. 

Architecture,  Greek  and  Gothic  compared, 
423 

Areopagitica,  Milton's,  556. 

Arguments  —  difference  between  rhetoric 
and  logic  with  reference  to  argument, 
357;  logic  defined,  358;  reasoning,  359; 
terms,  360 ;  propositions,  361  ;  definition, 
362  ;  proof,  363  ;  deduction,  364 ;  induc- 
tion, 365 :  Mill's  four  experimental  meth- 
ods of  inquiry,  366 ;  enthymeme,  367 ; 
kinds  of  arguments,  368  ;  causative,  369  ; 
illustrative,  370;    exemplative,  371;   from 


experience,  372  ;  from  analogy,  373  ; 
from  contrast,  374  ;  application  of  the 
different  kinds  of,  375  ;  presenution  of, 
37^392- 

Aristophanes,  parody  by,  444 ;  satirical  poet- 
ry of,  445. 

Aristotle,  definition  of  rhetoric  by,  i ;  classi- 
fication of  oratory  by,  499, 

Arrangement  of  words  in  a  sentence,  general 
rule  for  the,  50  ;  limitations  of  rule  for,  5r, ' 
for  purposes  of  harmony,  274- 

Ars  Poetica,  Horace's,  313. 

Art,  a  source  of  new  words,  41 ;  terms  ot, 
transferred  to  poetry,  308 ;  in  description, 
490  -,  in  classification  of  knowledge,  497. 

Arthurian  epopoeia,  324. 

Artifices  of  oratory,  definition  of,  526;  ex- 
pression of  doubt  or  ignorance,  527 ;  in- 
tentional omission  of  words,  528 ;  withdraw- 
al of  expression,  529 ;  apparent  intent,  530 ; 
supposed  case,  531 ;  other  forms,  532. 

Asiatic  oratory,  4. 

Assertion,  for  emphasis,  170 ;  for  strengthen- 
ing argument,  387,  487- 

Associative  theory  of  the  beautiful,  410. 

Assonant  rhymes  594. 

As3mdeton,  ai6 ;  oJmpared  with  polysyn- 
deton, 217. 

Attack,  in  oratory,  534;  personal,  535;  in- 
cidental reference,  536;  side  thrust,  537; 
defence  turned  into  attack,  54 1 :  testi- 
mony of  adversary  turned  against  himself^ 
54a 

Attic  oratory,  4. 

Attributive  terms,  51  ;  epithets,  137. 

Augmenutive  figures,  144  ;  amplification, 
145*159;  climax,  160-162;  h>'perbole, 
163,  164. 

Augustus,  Pope's  Epistle  to,  vocabulary  of^ 
i3- 

Ausonius  quoted.  439. 

Authority  defined,  43. 

Avarice,  468. 

Aversion,  473. 
'  Awe,  a  source  of  the  sublime,  426. 

Aytoun,  quoted,  435. 

Bacon,  style  of,  4  ;  Pope  on,  19 ;  Landor  on, 
ao ;  on  new  words,  39 ;  conciseness  of,  58 ; 
quoted,    75,    77,    83,    224;    epigrammatic 
style  of,  253  ;  persuasion  of,  315. 
.  Badinage,  449- 
'  Baldness  in  style,  246,  305. 

Ballad,  simplicity  in,  10;  quaintness  in,  258; 
pathetic,  481 ;  definition  of,  598. 

Banter,  449. 

Barbarism,  39. 

Baron  Munchausen,  satire  of,  446. 

Barrow,  Dr  Isaac,  quoted,  303,  433. 

Bathos,  246. 


Index. 


547 


Batrachomyomachia,  437. 

Beattie,  quoted,  105. 

Beautiful,  theories  concerning  the,  410  ;  defi- 
nition of,  411  ;  taste,  4 '2;  in  nature,  4'3  : 
color,4i4;  form,  415;  motion,  416;  sound, 
417;  proportion,  418;  variety,  419;  de- 
sign, 420;  in  morals,  421  ;  in  literature, 
422 ;  difference  between  ancient  and  mod- 
em idea  of,  423. 

Beauty,  power  of,  467. 

Beckford,  description  by,  490. 

Bedford,  Burke's  letter  to  Duke  of,  19. 

Belles-lettres,  292;  analogous  to  painting,  , 
292  ;  to  music,  293. 

Bentley,  quoted,  443. 

Beranger,  quoted,  249. 

Berkeley,  aim  of,  314. 

Bias,  on  part  of  writer,  315  ;  status,  328. 

Bible,  vocabulary  of,  13 ;  source  of  figurative 
language,  1 10 ;  source  of  allusion,  lao. 
See  Scriptures. 

Biography,  conclusion  in,  403 ;  narrative  in, 
494- 

Bismarck,  quoted,  139,  227. 

Black,  William,  description  by,  490. 

Blackwood's  Magazine,  323. 

Blair,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Blame,  473. 

Blank  verse,  595. 

Bleak  House,  Dickens's,  331 ;  illtistntive  ar- 
gument in,  370. 

Boccaccio,  10. 

Boileau,  quoted,  428. 

Bolingbroke,  quoted,  59,  245. 

Bombast,  246. 

Bonar,  Horatio,  quoted,  584. 

Bon  Gualtier,  burlesque  by,  437. 

Bon-mot,  443. 

Book  of  Common  Prayer,  vocabulary  of,  13 ; 
effect  on  English  langtiage,  34;  quoted, 
.85. 

Boswell,  life  of  Johnson  by,  317. 

Bravura,  299. 

Brevity,  in  style,'  58 ;  in  ezordiiun,  396  :  in 
wit,  433- 

Bride  of  Lammermoor,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Brilliancy,  243. 

Bristol  Election,  Burke's  speech  on,  example 
of  narrative  and  expository  subject-matter, 

3"- 

Brougham,  Lord,  vocabulary  of,  13;  quoted, 
89,  148,  161,  180,  185,  264,  306,  485,  486, 
487,  506  ;  status  of,  329 ;  description  by, 
385 :  on  Greek  oratory,  546 ;  sarcasm  of, 
550 ;  physical  disadvantages  as  an  orator, 
559- 

Browne,  Sir  Thomas,  quoted,  58,  75,  224; 
epigrammatic  style  of,  253  ;  criticised  by 
De  Quincey,  299  ;  persuasion  of,  315. 

Browning,  Mrs.,  vocabulary  of,  13 ;   imiu- 

A  A 


tion  of  Poe  by,  295  ;  invention  of,  324  ;  sub- 
limity of,  430 ;  pathetic,  482. 

Browning,  Robert,  vocabulary  of,  13;  quoted, 
171.212,  214,  586,  587  ;  mannerism  of,  269; 
parody  on,  444;  subjective  narration  of, 
495  ;  expository  poetry,  498. 

Bryant,  quoted,  116,  130,  585;  invention  of, 
325- 

Buffoonery,  309,  455. 

Building  of  the  Ship,  Longfellow's,  vocab- 
ulary of,  13. 

Bull,  Irish,  435. 

Bulwer.     See  Lytton. 

Buncombe,  246. 

Bunyan,  style  of,  4;  simplicity  of,  10;  vo- 
cabulary of,  13  ;  compared  with  Spencer, 
112;  quaintness  of,  258  ;  Grace  Abounding 
of,  495- 

Burden  of  proof,  33a 

Burke,  vocabulary  of,  13  ;  Latin  style  of,  15  ; 
quoted,  19,  ao,  81,  83,  88,  94,  109,  120,  132, 
141,  146,  149,  163,  171,  183,  227,  245.  254i 
256,  269,  270,  273.  276,  277,  309,  380,  381, 
383,  384.  385.  389.  4o5»  5»9.  527.  53',  547  ! 
conciseness  of,  58;  anaphora,  176;  sug- 
gestive style  of,  257 ;  affluence  of,  258 ;  per- 
suasion of,  315  ;  invention  of,  319  ;  status  of, 
329;  attention  to  method  by,  339;  order  of 
thought  in,  350;  definition  of,  362  ;  causa- 
tive argument  of,  369 ;  comprehensiveness 
of,  382  ;  exordium  of,  396;  amplification  of, 
379  ;  panegyric  of,  548 ;  command  of  sub- 
ject by,  552 ;  love  of  imagery  by,  555 ; 
faults  of,  as  an  orator,  556,  557 ;  physical 
disadvantages  of,  as  an  orator,  559;  m- 
tellectual  qualities,  561. 

Burlesque,  437,  566. 

Bumey,  Miss,  323. 

Bums,  Robert,  simplicity  of,  10;  quoted, 
186,  595 ;  effect  of  his  poetry  on  feelings, 
317;  pathetic  482. 

"But"  repeated  too  frequently,  264. 

Butler,  Bishop,  vocabulary  of,  13  ;   style  of, 

235- 

Byrom.  Dr.,  quoted,  439,  485,  488. 

Byron,  Lord,  vocabulary  of,  13;  quoted,  19, 
20,  25,  35-  92,  117,  120,  131,  132,  137,  i66, 
174,  178,  180,  183,  186,  197,  206,  219,  227, 
233,  236,  245,  260,  295,  317,  422,  462,  584; 
epithets  of,  140 ;  mannerism  of,  269 ;  sub- 
limity of,  430 ;  lampoon  of,  442 ;  pathetic, 
482;  description  by,  490;  subjective  de- 
scription by,  491  ;  compared  with  Scott, 
492  ;  subjective  narration  of,  495. 

Caedmon,  quoted,  430. 
Caesural  pause,  593. 
Calhoun,  J.  C.,  quoted,  508,  522,  524. 
Campbell,  Dr.,  vocabulary  of,  13 ;  vivacity 
defined  by,  64,  238. 


548 


Index. 


Campbell,  Thomas,  vbcabulary  of,  13 ;  quoted, 
130,  174,  186,  236,  262,  295;  sublimity  ot 
430. 

Cannii^,  quoted,  170,  180,  245. 

Cant,  272. 

Canticle,  599. 

Canto,  596. 

Care  in  use  of  words,  23. 

Carelessness,  305. 

Carlovingian  epopoeia,  324. 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  style  of,  4 ;  quoted,  94,  96, 
loi,  103,  116,  141,  152,  163,  197,  208,  211, 
235,  299.  516  ;  compared  with  De  Quincey, 
256;  mannerism  of,  269;  persuasion  of, 
315 ;  satire  of,  446 ;  description  by,  491. 

Catacbresis,  iii. 

Catalectic  s>-llable,  59a 

Cataplexis,  473. 

Catastrophe,  352. 

Causative  argiunents,  369. 

Cause,  put  for  effect,  130;  argument  from, 
to  effect,  369;  incongruity  in,  and  effect, 
432. 

Celtic  mythology,  463. 

Centennial  ode,  quoted,  108. 

Central  thought,  327. 

Chaff;  449. 

Chalmers,  Dr.  Thomas,  quoted,  49,  52,  160, 
166,  299,  510. 

Chamisso,  Shadowless  Man  by,  112. 

Channing,  William  K.,  quoted,  595. 

Character,  in  fiction,  323  :  compared  with 
pl<^t,  353  ;  in  introduction,  394,  395. 

Charles  the  Fifth,  opinion  of,  on  languages, 
260. 

Chaste  style,  302. 

Chatham,  Elarl  of.  %-ocabiilary  of,  13  ;  quoted, 
88,  91,  172,  174.  185,  235.  405,  473,  486,  488, 
511,  524,  534;  status  of,  329;  order  of 
thought  in,  340 ;  exordium  of,  396 ;  sar- 
casm of,  550 ;  physical  advantages  of,  as  an 
orator,  559  ;  courage  of,  560 ;  intellectual 
qualities  of,  561. 

Chaucer,  vocabulary  of,  13;  House  of  Fame 
by,  112;  style  of,  258;  aim  of,  316;  in- 
vention of,  324 ;  pathetic,  48X 

Chauvinism,  470. 

Childe  Harold,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Choate,  Rufus,  158 ;  style  of,  555. 

Choice  of  Hercules,  112. 

Chorianibus,  592. 

Chorus,  nature  of,  in  Greek  play,  423  ;  in 
songs  596. 

Christian  apologists,  501.  j 

Christian  Year,  Keble's,  vocabulary  of,  13.      ' 

Christmas  Eve,  Browning's,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Chronicles,  order  of  thousht  in,  343. 

Chronological  order  of  thought,  341. 

Cicero,  59 ;  figures  of  speech  in.  67  ;  quoted. 
84,  91,  117,  158,  1S5,  405  ;  interrogation  by,  I 


200 ;  affluent  style  of,  258,  364 ;  aim  of, 
315;  status  of,  327;  analysis  of  second 
oration  against  Catiline,  339  ;  exordium  of, 
396 ;  introduction  of,  398 ;  quoted  by  Quin- 
tilian,  532  ;  panegyric  of,  548  ;  physical  ad- 
vantages of,  as  an  orator,  559 ;  courage  of, 
560. 

Cid,  10. 

Circumlocution,  29;  compared  with  peri- 
phrasis, 132. 

Circumstantial  evidence,  370. 

Cities,  epithets  applied  to,  139. 

Clarendon,  quoted,  50.  53,  54  ;  faults  of,  55, 
56;  affluent  style  of,  59;  aim  of,  317; 
bias  of,  328. 

Classical  style,  256 ;  school  in  literature, 
423- 

Classification,  defined,  333 ;  of  narrative,  334 ; 
of  description,  335  ;  of  grouping,  336;  in 
exposition,  337;  analysis  and  synthesis  of, 
338;  general  and  particular  propositions, 
339  ;  incongruity  in,  432. 

Clauses,  improper  position  of,  50 ;  appended, 
54  ;  variety  in,  282 ;  co-o<-dination  of,  283. 

Clay,  Henry,  quoted,  485,  5«5i  5i7- 

Clearness,  of  conception  necessary  to  pwe- 
cision,  22;  in  method,  57;  in  arguments, 

377- 

Climax,  defined,  160;  incrementum  with, 
i6t  :  progressio  with,  i6a. 

Close  of  sentence,  284- 

Cobden,  quoted,  $24- 

Coleridge,  S.  T.,  quoted,  115,  191,  297  ;  sub- 
jective narrative  by,  495. 

Colin  Clout,  a  satire,  44$* 

Collectio,  150. 

Collins,  quoted,  79,  115,  189,  191,  295,  591  ; 
epithets  of,  140. 

Colloquialisms,  270. 

Colonizing  movements,  a  source  of  new 
words,  41. 

Color,  a  source  of  beauty,  414- 

Comedy,  conclusion  in,  404 ;  defined,  566. 

Command,  485. 

Command  of  subject  in  oratory,  552;  of 
language,  561. 

Commentum,  205. 

Commoratio,  515. 

Comparison,  93  ;  of  degree,  94 ;  of  analogy, 
95  ;  of  similarity.  96 ;  for  ornament,  97 ; 
for  explanation  and  illustration,  98  :  faults 
in,  99;  in  illustrative  style,  250;  incon- 
gruity in,  432. 

Complex  sentence,  52. 

Compliment,  in  oratory,  506. 

Composition  in  English  and  other  languages, 

45- 
Compound  sentences,  52. 
Compound  words,  45  ;  faults  in  use  of,  46. 
Comprehensiveness,  38a. 


Index, 


549 


Conceit,  307. 

Concession  in  oratory,  508. 

Conciliation  in  oraior>',  in  exordium,  396 ;  in 
language,  504 ;  in  demeanor,  554. 

Conciliation  with  America,  speech  of  Burke 
on,  status  of,  329 ;  outline  of  speech  on, 
339 ;  causative  argument  in  speech  on, 
369;  diminution  in,  380;  condensation>in, 
381 ;  definition  of,  384  ;  exordiuai  in,  396 ; 
conclusion  of,  405. 

Conciseness,  tends  to  perspicuity,  58  ;  to 
energy,  228. 

Conclusion,  elegance  in,  291  :  explained, 
400  ;  in  narrative  fiction,  401  ;  in  history, 
402  ;  in  biography,  403  ;  in  drama,  404  ;  in 
oratory,  405  ;  different  kinds  of,  406. 

Concomitant  variations,  Mill's  method  of, 
366. 

Concrete  terms,  tend  to  clearness,  10 ;  used 
for  abstract,  128 ;  tend  to  energy,  232. 

Concurrent  streams,  344. 

Condensation,  381. 

Confession  in  oratory,  509. 

Conjugal  affection,  470. 

Connectives,  variation  of,  281. 

Consonant  rhymes,  594. 

Consonants,  too  many  together,  263. 

Consultation  with  audience,  511. 

Container  for  contained,  130. 

Contiguity,  figures  arising  from  idea  of,  de- 
fined, 127;  synecdoche,  128;  antimeria, 
enallage,  129;  metonymy,  130;  metalepsis, 
131;  periphrasis,  132;  euphemism,  133; 
hyixxorisma,  134  ;  litotes,  135 ;  exemplum, 
136;  epithets,  137-142. 

Contrast,  figures  based  upon  idea  of,  defined, 
73  ;  antithetical  forms  of,  74-84  ;  definition 
by,  362;  argument  t'rom,  374;  iiKongruity 
in,  43»- 

Control  of  emotion,  546. 

Controversial  debate,  501. 

Conviction  an  aim  of  composition,  314,  317. 

Convivial  songs,  599. 

Co-ordination  of  clauses,  283. 

Copiousness,  241. 

Cornwall,  Barry,  vocabulary  of,  13. 
!orrect  style,  307. 
ounter  proposition,  361. 

Countries,  epithets  applied  to,  139. 

Couplet,  596. 

Cowper,  simplicity  of,  10 ;  vocabulary  of, 
13;  quoted,  92,  129,  171,  186,  585,586;  in- 
vention of,  322  ;  pathetic,  482  ;  expository 
poetry,  498. 

Crabbe,  invention  of,  322 ;  objective  narra- 
tion of,  495. 

Creative  invention,  320,  325. 

Cretic,  592. 

Crisis  in  fiction,  352. 

Criticism,  Essay  on.  Pope's,  313. 


Crown,  Demosthenes's  oration  on  the,  exposi-  \ 
tory  and  narrative  subject-matter  in,  311  ; 
aim  of,  317;  status  of,  329;  order  of 
thought  in,  351;  exordium  in,  396;  con- 
clusion of,  4o5>;  defence  turned  to  attack 
in,  541  ;  outburst  of  fe«ling  in,  544  ;  concil- 
iation in,  554. 

Cry  of  the  Children,  Mrs.  Browning's,  470. 

Ctesiphon,  vEschines  against,  order  of 
thought  in,  351. 

Cumming,  288. 

Curran,  quoted,  243,  486,  511,  524,  528,  532, 
534- 

Current  sayings,  76. 

Cursor  Mundi,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Dactylic  metres,  587. 

Dante,  quoted,  228 ;  invention  of,  320,  325, 
332  ;  introduction  of,  394 ;  pathetic,  4S1 ; 
subjective  narration  by,  495. 

Darkness  a  source  of  the  sublime,  425. 

Darwin,  Erasmus,  246 ;  expository  poetry  of, 
498. 

Debate,  $00 ;  controversial,  501 ;  parliamen- 
tary, 502. 

Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
classification  in,  334. 

Decrementive  figures,  classified,  143 ;  de- 
fined, 165;  diminution  in,  166;  depreciar 
tion  uf,  167 ;  anticlimax  in,  168. 

Deduction,  364. 

Defence  in  oratory,  538;  strict,  539;  indi- 
rect reply,  540;  turned  into  attack,  541; 
testimony  of  adversary  turned  against 
himself,  254. 

Defiance  in  oratory,  396 ;  language  of  emo- 
tions, 473. 

Definite  in  style,  128;  tending  to  energy, 
231  :  in  argument,  384. 

Definition  explained,  362 ;  tends  to  clearness 
in  argument,  377. 

Defoe,  style  of,  4 ;  simplicity  of^  to ;  vocab- 
ulary oi,  13. 

Degree,  comparison  ofi  93. 

Dejection  in  emotions,  475. 

Deliberative  oratory,  499. 

Delicacy  in  style,  302. 

Delight,  474. 

Demodocus,  quoted,  439. 

Demonstrative  terms,  in  style,  233  ;  in  ora- 
tory, 499. 

Demosthenes,  quoted,  157,  200,  201,  544;  hy- 
perbaton  of,  194 ;  description  by,  385  ;  adju- 
ration of,  486  ;  attack  of,  534 ;  command  of 
subject  by,  552 ;  conciliation  of,  554 ;  physical 
advantages  of,  as  an  orator,  559 ;  courage 
of,  560. 

Denial,  in  arguments,  388 ;  in  emotions,  487. 

Denunciation,  473. 

Depreciation,  167. 


550 


Index. 


De  Quincey.  quoted,  4,  49.  5$.  60,  6i.  ia6» 
j66.  1^7.  x<^.  202.  212,  223.  229,  284,  288, 
28>%  2^>  302.  434,  548 ;  vocabulary  of.  13 : 
criiicu<«d,  55  ;  style  ol,  227  :  cxxnpared  with 
Carlyle,  2$6:  persoasion  oC,  315:  cfaaiige 
«<,a|^iiiat  J— ephw,  317:  oo  Milton,  490; 
Opimm  Eater  bjr,  495; 

Dc9tnptMis«  MtfkAcMtion  in,  1^ ;   dcfinfd, 
jii ;  fiatrifiratiwi  in,  J35 :  >«»  oratory,  185; 
>4r  395;  "> 
»;  stibfective,  491 


!  poctty,  6ot. 

Design,  a  Moce  of  the  bcBalifid,  4aoL 

Desire,  486. 

Desires,  emuoerated,  408 :  defined,  464 ;  for 
•df-jxcaef  valion,  465 ;  of  ■eKotec■^4^' 
of  aanbitkni,  467 ;  -of  avariee.  468  ;  for 
kBO«rledge,469;  litemiire  of,  476. 

Dei|nir,475. 

Desmy.ssa- 

De  Vere,  Aobrey,  quoted.  1  xx 

lefined,  311,  ste;  didactic,  563; 
J64. 
isa. 

DuMBi,  <|ooied,  tsB. 

voakialafy  of;  13 :  a  «wfee  of  d- 
tao;  ooBpared  with  Thadceray, 
aSfS;  nanaerinB  «£.  369;  florid  style  ml, 
306 :  attractrrencas  oC  316;  aim  of.  317: 
realistic  style  eC  323,  325;  characters  in, 
3S3;  satire  o<;  446 ;  pauhetic.  482;  sob- 
jective  narratioo  by.  495. 

Dictiooaries,  vocabolary  of,  13. 

EKdactic,  dialogue,  563 ;  poetry,  60a. 

Dies  Ine,  481. 

Dtetedas,  87. 

Dtfierenoe.  MOTs  Method  of  3^6 

Diffbse  style,  59:  cootiasted  with  florid, 
306. 

D%nity  ofttyle,235. 

Dtgrentoo,  6t,aob;  in  argument,  390^ 

I^Bumition.  in  style,  >66 ;  in  aigameut,  380. 

Dinoneratio,  155. 

Direct  iatrodnctioB,  397. 

Direct  stateaMBt,  16& 

Direct  stress  on  words,  by  sastitiun,  170 ;  by 
negatioQ,  171. 

Diacjuwery,  a  souroe  of  new  words,  4t< 

Dislike,  473. 

DiaBay,475- 

Display  of  feefiog  in  oratory,  543 ;  sadden 
outburst,  544 ;  estravagaaoe  of  expreasion, 
545  :  cxntTol  of  emotion,  546 :  eology,  S47 ; 
panegyric,  548;  retort,  549 ;  sarcasm,  550- 

Disproof,330' 

Divaeii,  i9»:  muaerism  o^  269;  qnoAed, 
527 :  biiiiiiCM  lilrr  oratory  of.  555. 

Dissimilarity  distinsuisbed  from  cooftast,  374. 


!  Dirina  Commedia,  35;  allegory  of^  112; 
suttts  oC  33>;  title  of.  332;  classification 
o^  334 :  introduction  of,  394. 

Doddridge,  quoted,  439. 

Domestic  soQgs,  599. 

Don  Qmma^  331,  446. 
!  Donay  BSde,  15- 

Doable  entendre,  454. 

Do«Ue-6M»d  cieed,  454- 

Doubt,  sutement  oC  in  oratory,  5x7. 

Diama,  defined,  311,  316,  565:  order  of 
tbottght,  354*.  introduction.  395;  condu- 
aien,  404 ;  nanative,  494 ;  subjective  nar- 
ratioo, 495 ;  dialogue,  564 ;  divisions  of 
dramatic  litoature,  566;  origin  <£,  567; 
mystery  and  morality  i^ys,  568:  Greek, 
369:  modem,  570L 

Dramatic  order  of  thought,  352  :  compared 
yrhh  narrattre  order,  334 ;  dialogue,  564 ; 
jHjetry,  60a 

L>raper.  Dr.,  vocabulary  oC,  13. 

Draper.  Sir  William.  J uniu&'s  letter  to,TOCab- 
ular)-  of,  13. 

Dry  style,  305. 

Drjrden,  itew  wonis  «^  40;  quoted,  76,  140^ 
175.  '9b,  i89»  264,  439,  589,  591,  593  :  ep>> 
thctso<;  140W 

Dubitatio,  527. 

Doderant,  Madame.    See  George  Sand. 


Doma»,  258 :  plat  oC'363- 
Divafticn,  the  aubKme  in,  425- 
Durward,  Qacntin,  313. 
Dwelling  on  a  proposition,  515. 

Ease  of  style,  302. 

East  India  Bill,  Burke's  oration  on,  general- 
ixation  oi,  383 ;  definiteness  of,  384  ;  con- 
clusion of,  405  :  Fox's  oration  on,  analogy 
of,  373  ;  defence  turned  to  attack  io,  541 ; 
retort  in,  549 ;  sarcasm  in,  550. 

Easy  writing  di&rs  from  ease  of  style.  302. 

Ecclesiastical  Polity,  Hooker' s,Tocabulary  of; 
13;  aim  of,  3r3. 

Eclipse  of  Faith,  495. 

Ecloge,  157- 

Edinburgb'ReTiew,  quoted,  s<* 

Editorial  article,  49S. 

Education,  497. 

style,  237. 
33S- 

Egotistic  style,  307. 

Ejaculation,  26ft. 

Elaboratioo  of  style,  303. 

gi«y»«r>,  defined  and  illustrated,  266 ;  viola- 
tions of,  267 ;  by  aflkctatioo,  268 ;  by  nuo- 
nerism,  269;  by  colloquialisms,  270:  by 
slangs  271 ;  by  cant,  272 :  by  vulgarism,  273. 

Elegy.  599- 

Elevatioo,  560. 


Index. 


551 


Elia,  358.  I 

Eliot,  George,  vocabulary  of,   13 ;    quoted, 
156  ;  maxims  of,  316  ;  order  of  thought  of, 
353  ;  subjective  narration  of,  495. 
Elizabethan  dramatists,  324. 
Ellipse,  208. 

Elliptical  figures,  defined,  207 ;  ellipse,  208  : 
zeugma,  209:   synesis,  210;   anacoluthon, 
211;  aposiopesis,  212;  epanorthosis,  213; 
interruptio,  214;    suppressio,  215;    asyn- 
deton, 216. 
Eloquence,  vivacity  rising  to,  239. 
Elyot,  Sir  Thomas,  new  words  by,  40. 
Emerson,   style  of,  4 ;    vocabulary   of;   13 ; 
quoted,   58,  75,  80,  81,  82,  115,  119,  'S^, 
163,  164,  166,  177,  183,  226,  231,  233.  '35. 
254  ;  mannerism  of,  269 ;  aim  oi,  3is> 
Emotional  co;iclusion,  406. 
Emotions,  literature  of,  a  part  of  rhetoric,  2 ; 
concrete  terms  to  expres.%  11;  influence 
of,  on  literature,  407  ;  classificai  ion  of,  40S; 
the   beautiful   and  sublime,  4io-43<  '>  tl>c 
ridiculous,  432-461  ;    the    fantastic,  463 ; 
desires,  464-469 ;  affections,  470 ;  passions, 
47 1-475 ".  literature  of  the  desires,  a£Eectioas, 
and  iiassions,  476-488. 
Eniplusis,  effect  on  arrangement  of  words, 
51;  in  parenthesis,  55;  basis  of  figurative 
language,  71;   figures  of,  169;   emphatic 
assertion,   170;    negation,  171:    iteration, 
172-187;   inversion,  j88-i9$  :  unusual  or 
striking  presentation,  196-225;  in  proposi- 
tions, 286  ;  in  oratory,  512. 
Emphatic  conclusion,  406. 
Enallage,  129. 
Enantiosis  81. 

Energ)-,  in  concrete  terms,  11;  Whatel/s 
view  of,  64 ;  among  the  general  divisions 
of  the  subject  of  persuasiveness,  66 ;  de- 
fined, 226;  simplicity  as  tending  to,  227; 
conciseness,  228  ;  retrenchment  of  words, 
229 ;  precision,  230 ;  the  definite  more  en- 
ergetic than  the  indefinite,  231;  concrete 
more  energetic  than  abstract,  232  ;  demon- 
strative words,  233;  proper  terms,  234; 
other  qualities  of  style  that  tend  to,  235  ; 
illustrations  from  various  authors,  336; 
faults  of  style  as  opposed  to,  237. 
England,  concurrent  streams  in  history  ofi 

344  ;  explanatory  narrative  of,  346. 
English  Bible,  effect  <5n  literature  and  lan- 
guage, 34  ;  rhythm  in,  299. 
English   language,  component  parts  of,  12 ; 
grammar  of,   14;    chief  elements   of,    17; 
synonymous  words  in,  24 ;  new  w  ords  ad- 
mitted into,  40 ;  little  power  of  compound- 
ing words,  43  ;  euphony,  260. 
English  literature,  style  of,  4 ;  prose,  49 ;  ad- 
mits of  inversion,  190 ;  humor,  435  ;   ora- 
tory, 555 ;  drama,  570. 


Entertainment,  an  aim  of  composition,  316, 

3«7- 
Enthusiasm,  vivacity  rising  to,  339 ;  emotion 

of,  474- 
Entreaty,  486. 
bpanalepsis,  182. 
bpanaphora,  179. 
Epanodos,  181. 
Epanorthosis,  213,  529. 
Kpexergasia,  154.  , 

Epic  poetry,  narration,  493;  subjective  nar- 
ration, 494 ;  definition,  598. 
Epigram,  antithesis.  76 ;  a  figure,  225  ;  illus- 

txated,  251 :  defined  and  illustrated,  439. 
Epigrammatic  style,  252 ;    in   poetry,  253 ; 

in  prose,  354 ;  faults  in,  25  s. 
Epiphonema,  199. 
Epistle,  49& 
Epistrophe,  177. 

Epithets,  precision  in,  ao;  defined,  137;  im> 
portance  of,  138;  popularity  of;  139;  i» 
poetry,  140:  id  prose,  141 ;  faults  in,  142. 
Epixeuxis,  174. 
Epopceia,  324. 

Eiskine,  Lord,  vocabulary  of;  13;  quoted, 
339,  284,  379,  505.  544'  546.  550 ;  invention 
of;  320;  sutus  of,  329;  digression  of,  390; 
causative  argument  of;  369:  exordium  of; 
396 :  conclusion  of,  554. 
Esprit  de  corps,  470. 

Essays,  vocabulary  of,  13 ;  exposition,  498. 
Esteem,  470. 
Eulogy,  547- 
Euphemism,  133. 

Euphony,  in  different  languages,  260 ;  in  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  composition,  261 ;  examples 
of,  262;  violations  of,  in  letters  and  sylla- 
bles 263  ;  repetitions  of  words,  264,  265  ; 
arrangement  of  words,  274. 
Euripides,   introduction    of,  354  :    pathetic, 

480;  characters  of,  569- 
European  literature,  4. 
Evans,  Lord  Mansfield  on,  373. 
"  Even"  changing  with  "and,"  281. 
Everett,  Edward,  2n. 
Evidence,  370. 
Example,  illustrative  style,  248 ;    definition 

by,  362  ;  clearness  in  argument  by,  377. 
Exclamation,  figures  of,  definition   of,  197  ; 

salutation,  198  ;   epiphonema,  199. 
Execration,  473. 

Exemplative  arguments,  defined,  371 ;  from 
experience,  372;  from  analogy,  373;  from 
contrast,  374. 
Exemplum,  136,  248. 
Exergasia,  91. 
Exhortation,  487. 
Experience,  argument  from,  372. 
Experimental   methods   of  inquiry.   Mill's, 
366. 


552 


Index. 


Explanation,  in  style,  206 ;  in  argiunent,  377 ; 
in  oraton',  522. 

Explanatory  words,  279 ;  narrative,  346 ;  in- 
troduction, 397. 

Expositio,  202. 

Exposition,  defined,  311  ;    classification   in, 
337  ;    order   of  thought,  348 ;    nanai 
494  :  subjective  narration,  495 ;  defi^ 

of,  496  ;    rla<t»W^^tinn    c\   f^i^j^gemaMyry    writ 

ings,'498. 

Expository  writings.  Vocabulary  of,  x^  sub- 
ject matter  of,  311.  '    ' 

£xtra\'agance  of  language,  545. 

Fable,  114. 

Faerie  Queene,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Fairy  tales,  source  of  allusion,  lao. 

Fame,  467. 

Familiar  essays,  271. 

Fantastic,  463. 

Farce,  566. 

Fashion,  a  source  of  new  words,  41. 

Fashion's  of  criticism,  rrS,. 

Y'       ■■■  ■    •      •■  ;oi. 

i  ruess,  24-30,  44. 

■i  .        -  7  i  vivacity,  246 ; 

euphony,  263,  264  ;  elegance  in  words,  267- 
273  ;  elegance  in  style,  304-309. 

Faust,  allegor}'  in,  1 12  ;  ideal  in,  322 ;  quoted, 
490 ;  subjective  narration  io,  495. 

Fear,  475- 

Feet,  in  poetry,  iambic,  584  :  trochaic,  585 ; 
anajwestic,  586  :  dactylic,  5S7 ;  interchange 
of,  589  ;  other  feet,  592. 

Felicity  of  style,  245. 

Female  rhymes,  594. 

Fertility  of  resources  in  oratory,  553. 

Fiction,  admits  obsolete  words,  36;  conclu- 
sion of,  401  :  dialogue  in,  564. 

Fielding, realistic  in,  323. 

Figure,  a  source  of  the  beautiful,  415. 

Figures  of  speech,  definition  of,  67 ;  impor- 
Unce  of,  68 ;  tropes,  69 ;  classification,  70, 
71 ;  arising  from  idea  of  contrast,  72-84  ; 
fix)m  perception  of  resemblance,  85-126: 
from  idea  of  contiguity.  127-142;  figures 
of  gradation,  143-168 ;  of  iteration,  169- 
187:  from  inversion  <^  words,  188-195; 
from  unusual  or  striking  presentation,  196- 
225 ;  harmony  and  embellishment,  301  ; 
argument,  503  ;  wit  and  humor,  439-443, 
447-459 ;  emotion^  484-488 ;  oratory,  507- 
532 ;  poetry,  573. 

Filial  affection,  470b 

Fine  writing,  268. 

Finish  of  style,  302, 

Fletcher  of  Saltoun,  quoted,  315. 

Florid  style,  306. 

Fluent  style,  25S 

Foot  in  poetrj-,  583- 


Foreign  intercourse,  a  source  of  new  words, 
41. 

Form,  a  source  of  the  beautiful,  415. 

Forms  of  expression,  connected  with  the 
emotions,  implying  superiority,  485 ;  in- 
feriority, 486;  equality,  487;  reference  to 
self,  488. 

Fouch^,  quoted,  245. 

Fouqu^,  De  la  Motte,  allegory  by,  112; 
ideal  of,  323. 

Fox,  Charles  James,  quoted,  270,  284,  374, 
405t  505.  535f  536,  537.  54».  549,  55©  5  order 
of  thought  in,  340;  outline  of  oration  on 
the  rejection  of  Napoleon's  overtures,  351 ; 
digression  of,  390 ;  exordium  of,  396 ;  per- 
oration, 405  ;  answers  to  objections,  524  ; 
command  of  subject,  552  ;  fertility  in  re- 
sources, 553  ;  courage  of,  559 ;  intelleaual 
qualities  of,  561. 

Frank  style,  258. 

Franklin,  quoted,  440. 

Fraternal  affection,  470. 

Freeman,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

F:  .ii;e,  a  source  of  new  words,  43  ; 

l'  -ure,  style  of,  4;  characteristics 

of.  49 ;  i^erspicuous,  57 ;  antithetical,  75 ; 

^t,435 :  drama,  57a 
Friendship,  470. 
Frigidtty  in  style,  246. 
Fmissart,  10. 
Froude,  vocabulary    of,    13 ;    summary    of, 

347- 
Fulke,  new  vtords  by,  40. 
Fuller,  Thomas,  new  words  by,  40 ;  quoted, 

250.  457  ;  s-tyle  of,  258. 
Fustian,  246. 
Future  occurrence,  sutement  of,  in  oratory, 

514- 

Garrison,  W.  L.  560. 

Generalization,  383. 

Georgics,  Virgil,  313. 

German  language,  power  of  compounding 
words,  45  ;  influence  on  English,  46 ;  eu» 
phony,  260. 

German  literature,  style  of,  4  ;  character  of, 
45,  49  ;   drama,  570. 

Gesner,  306. 

Gibbon,  style  of,  4 :  vocabulary  of,  13  : 
quoted,  49,  402  ;  dignity  of,  235  ;  suggest- 
ive style  of,  257;  aim  of  history,  317;  in- 
vention of,  318:  status  of,  328;  classifica- 
tion of,  334  :  order  of  thought  in,  343  ; 
concurrent  streams,  344  ;  retrogression  of, 
345;  introduction  of,  394;  description  d, 
490. 

Gilfillan,  306. 

Gladstone,  555. 

Gliick,  Elizabeth,  quoted,  10. 


Index. 


553 


Goethe's  Faust,  112;  Sorrows  of  Werther, 
306  :    quoted,  490. 

Goldsmith,  style  of,  4;  simplicity  of,  10; 
quoted,  183;  classical  English,  256;  pa- 
thetic, 482. 

Gordon,  Lord  George,  Erskine's  speech  on, 
illustrative  argument  in,  370 ;  transition, 
378  ;  conclusion,  405  ;  self-depreciation  of, 
505  ;  outburst  of  feeling  by,  544. 

Gorgeous  style,  303. 

Gorgias,  definition  of  rhetoric  by,  1. 

Gospels,  pathetic,  479  ;  subjective  narrarion 
of,  495. 

Gothic  architecture,  423. 

Grace  of  style,  302. 

Gradation,  figures  of,  augmentative,  144-164 ; 
decrementive,  165-168. 

Grafton,  letter  of  Junius  to,  quoted,  19. 

Grammar,  English,  48. 

Grammarians  formerly  investigated  style,  x. 

Grandiloquence,  307. 

Gratitude,  470. 

Gratlan,  vocabulary  of,  13  :  quoted,  116,  162, 
178,  179,  202,  510,  531,  534  ;  status  of,  329 ; 
panegyric  of,  548;  physical  disadvantages 
of,  559. 

Gray,  quoted,  79,  loi,  120,  128,  130,  153,  189, 
200,  295,  297,  430 ;  epithets,  137,  140 ;  de- 
scription, 490. 

Greece,  history  of,  concurrent  streams,  344. 

Greek  art,  423. 

Greek  language,  a  source  of  new  words,  12, 
41 ;  power  of  compounding  words,  45 ; 
conjunctions,  -sSi. 

Greek  literature,  figures  of  speech,  69 : 
drama,  324 ;  idea  of  beautiful,  423 ;  dia- 
logue. 562  ;  ecclesiastical  metres,  581. 

Grey,  Lord,  quoted,  509,  52$. 

Grief,  475- 

Grote,  invention  of,  325. 

Grotesque,  463. 

Ground  of  argument,  327. 

Grouping,  in  description,  336. 

Guizot,  495. 

Gulliver's  Travels,  popularity  of,  15:  source 
of  allusion,  123  ;  verisimilitude,  369 ;  satire 
of,  446. 

Gushing  style,  246,  306. 

Habbakuk,  quoted,  76,  430. 

Hadfield,    Erskine's    speech    on,    argxunent 

from  contrast  in,  374. 
Hall,  Robert,  205. 
Hallam,  vocabulary  of,   13 ;  conciseness   of, 

59 ;  Constitutional  History.  495. 
Halleck,  quoted,  116. 
Hamerton,  vocabulary  of,  13. 
Hamlet,  scenery  in,   323  ;    status    of.  331  ; 

classification  of,  334  ;  order  of  thought  in, 

352;  introduction  10,354;  verisimilitude, 


369 ;  subjective  description  in,  491  ;  sub- 
jecti\e  narration  in,  495. 

Handy  Andy,  a  burlesque,  437. 

Hardy,  Erskine's  speech  on,  illustrative  ar- 
gument in,  370;  argument  from  experience, 
372  ;  outburst  of  feeling,  544. 

Harmonious  arrangement  of  words,  euphony 
and  elegance  required,  274;  successions, 
27s ;  modifying  words,  276 ;  impersonal 
construction,  277;  appended  clauses,  278; 
explanatory  words.  279  ;  prepositions,  280  ; 
variation  of  connectives,  281  ;  variety  in 
clauses,  282 ;  co-ordination  of  clauses,  283  ; 
close  of  sentence,  284. 

Harmony,  defined,  259 ;  euphony,  260-265  ; 
elegance,  266-573  ;  arrangement  of  words, 
274-284  ;  transition,  285-291  :  word-paint- 
ing and  onomatopoeia,  292-297;  rhythm, 
298,  299 ;  qualities  of  style  associated  with, 
300-309. 

Haroun-al-Raschid,  letter  of,  to  Emperor 
Nicephorus,  235. 

Hastings,  Warren,  Macaula/s  Essay  on, 
grouping  in  description,  336. 

Hate,  473- 

Hayne,  outline  of  oration  on  Public  Lands, 

35>- 
Hazlitt,  brilliancy  of,  243  ;  classical  English, 

256. 
Headley,  J.  T.,  306. 
Heavy  style.  246. 
Heber,  Bishop,  quoted.  586,  592. 
Hebrew  literature,  figures  of  speech,  69 ;  an- 
tithesis and  parallel,  75  ;  poetry,  86. 
Hedge,  Dr.  F.  H.,  quoted,  121,  249. 
Helps,  Sir  Arthur,  quoted,  282,  284. 
Henly,  quoted,  439. 
Henry,  Patrick,  quoted,  181,  182,  206,  214, 

387,  485,  487.  488,  5".  5 '3.  524- 
Herald,  New  York,  vocabulary  of,  13. 
Herbert,  George,  quoted,  102, 115. 
Hero  in  fiction,  323. 
Herodotus,   simplicity  of,    10 ;    introduction 

of,  318;  status  of,  328;  order  of  thought 

in,  343  ;  introduction  of,  394. 
Heroine  in  fiction,  323. 
Herrick,  Robert,  quoted,  115. 
Hervey,  Meditations  of,  306. 
Heylin's  Observations  on  L' Estrange,  40. 
Heywood,  Thomas,  quoted,  115,  439. 
"  Hifalutin,"  246,  306. 
Historical  narrative  in  poetry,  598. 
Historic  Doubts,  Whately*s  satire  of,  446. 
History,  order  of  thought  in,  343  ;   modem, 

344 ;    conclusion   of,  402  ;    narrative,  494  ; 

difference  between   ancient  and  modern, 

495- 
Hoffmann,  463. 
Hogarth,  quoted,  415. 
Holland,  Philemond,  40. 


554 


Index. 


Holmes,  O.  W.,  quoted,  250,  254,  443. 
Homer,  a  source  of  allusion,  120  :  epithets  of, 

140;   aim  of,  316;   invention  of,  320,  324, 

325 ;  pathetic,  480. 
Homceoteleuton,  187. 
Hood,  Thomas,  quoted,  76,  451,  482,   587, 

59CS  592  ;  philanthropy  of,  470 ;  pathetic, 

482. 
Hooker,  styltf  of,  4  ;  vocabulary  of,  13. 
Horace,  a  source  of  allusion,  120 ;  quoted, 

467  ;   expository  poetry,  498. 
Horrible,  463,  464. 
Howe,  Julia  Ward,  quoted,  107. 
•'  However  "  repeated  too  often,  264. 
Hudibras,  vocabulary  of,  13  :  a  satire,  445. 
Hugo,  Victor,  extra\*agant  style,  255:  florid, 

306 ;  ideal  of,  323 ;  order  of  thought  in, 

353- 
Human  action  in  description,  490. 
Hume,  quoted,  53,  410 ;  bias  of,  328. 
Humor,  defined,  434  ;  in  literature,  435- 
Humorous  literature,  slang  in,  271 ;   songs, 

599 ;  poetry,  605. 
Hunt,  Leigh,  quoted,  81,  121 ;  brilliancy  of^ 

243;  aim  of,  314. 
Hymn,  599. 
Hypcrbaton,  194. 
H>'perboIe,  144, 163. 
Hypercritiasm,  51. 
Hypocorisma.  134. 
H>'pot>'posis,  158. 
Hysterical  style,  306. 
Hysteron  proteron,  195. 

Iambic  metres,  584. 

Icelandic  poetry,  108. 

Ideal,  322.  411. 

Ideas,  new,  a  source  of  new  words,  41. 
^^#dyls  of  the  King,  470. 

Ignorance,  affectation  of,  in  oratory,  527. 

Iliad,  simplicity  of,  10 ;  aim  of,  316;  status 
of,  331;  classification  of,  334;  conclusion 
of,  401  ;  debate,  402. 

Illustration,  definition  by,  36a ;  clearness  in 
argument,  377.  .... 

Illustrative  arguments,  370.  ^ 

Illustrative  style,  247  ;  by  example,  248  ;  al- 
lusion and  quotation,  249 :  comparison 
and  metaphor,  250:  antcdole,  251. 

Imagination  in  oratory,  561. 

Imitations  of  great  writers,  308. 

Imitators  of  Emerson,  255. 

Impersonal  construction,  277. 

Important  point  in  exordium,  396. 

Impropriety.  25. 

Inanimate  nature  in  description,  49a 

Incidental  reference  in  oratory,  536. 

Incisive  style,  235. 

Incongruity,  the  ridiculous,  432  ;  wit,  433. 

Incrementum,  161. 


I  Indefinite  for  definite,  128. 

Indirect  reply  in  oratory,  540. 

Induction,  365. 
:  Ingenuous  style,  258. 
i  Ingoldsby  Legends,  437,  463. 

In  Memoriam,  495. 

Innuendo,  126,  135,  457. 
1  Instruction,  an  aim  of  composition,  313,  317. 
I  Instrument  put  for  agent,  130. 

Intellectual  qualities  of  an  orator,  561. 

Intentional  omission  ot  words,  528. 

Interchange  of  feet,  589;  of  metres,  591. 

Interesting  style,  258. 

Interrogation,  figures  of,  200 ;  sermodnatio, 
201  :  peroontatio  and  expositio,  202 ;  re- 
sponsio  sibi  ipsi,  203. 

Interruptio,  214. 

Introduction,  elegance  in,  286:  explained, 
393  ;  narration,  394  ;  drama,  395  ;  oratory, 
396 ;  considered  with  reference  to  its  own 
character,  397  ;  general  nature  of,  398 ; 
preface,  399. 

Invention,  a  source  of  new  words,  41 ;  in 
rhetoric,  a  division  of  method,  310;  its 
scope,  312:  defined,  318;  accumulative, 
319;  creative,  320;  two  kinds  intermin- 
gled, 324  :  creative,  the  greater,  325. 

Inventions,  497. 

Inversion,  figures  of,  defined,  188;  in  poetry, 
189;  prose,  190;  anastrophe,  191 ;  synche- 
sis,  192  :  tmesis,  193  ;  hypcrbaton,  194 ; 
hysteron  proteron,  195. 

Invitation,  485. 

Invocation,  486. 

Irish  humor,  435. 

Irish  oratory,  555. 

Irish  Right,  Grattan's  speech  on,  status  of, 
329.  373- 

Irony,  124,  456. 

Irving,  Washington,  style  o^  2$^ 

Isocolon,  83. 

I  Socrates,  definition  of  rhetoric  by,  i ;  status 
of.  327. 

Italian    style,  4 ;    language,  43  ;    euphony, 
-26©. 

Italy,  topics  in  history  of,  341 ;  concurrent 
streams,  344. 

Iterative  figures,  defined,  173  ;  epizeuxis, 
174  ;  repetitio  crebra,  175  ;  anaphora, 
176;  epistrophe,  177;  antistrophe,  178; 
epanaphora,  179;  anadiplosis,  180;  epano- 
dos,  181;  epanalepsis,  182;  ploce,  183; 
symploce,  184 ;  synonymia,  185 ;  allitera- 
tion, x86 ;  homceoteleuton,  187. 

Jealousy,  473. 

Jefferson,  quoted,  135. 

Jejune  style,  246. 

Jerrold,  Douglas,  quoted,  443,  45»)  453- 

Job,  Book  of,  501. 


Index. 


555 


Joe  Millerisms,  309. 

Johnson,  style  of,  4 ;  elaborate,  10 :  verbose, 
28 ;  quoted,  49,  148,  229,  297,  383 ;  Ras- 
selas,  112  ;  dignity  of  style,  235  ;  aim  of, 
315  ;  reports  of  debates,  502. 

Jonah,  Book  of,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Jones,  Sir  William,  quoted,  140,  439. 

Jonson,  Ben,  invention  of,  325  ;  quoted,  439, 
470. 

Josephus,  De  Quincey's  charge  against,  317 ; 
against  Apion,  501. 

Joy,  474- 

Judicial  oratory,  499. 

Julius  Cassar,  dramatic  opening  of,  354. 

Junius,  vocabulary  of,  13  ;  quoted,  19,  31, 
130,  200,  349,  530,  531;  status  of,  329; 
proposition,  361  ;  supposed  case,  532  ;  sar- 
casm, 550. 

Juvenal,  quoted,  264. 

Kane's  Voyages,  490. 

Keats,  quoted,  20,  226, 421,  422, 431 ;  style  of, 
258  ;  pathetic,  482. 

King  John,  Shakespeare's,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Kinglake,  quoted,  117,  121,  274,  590 ;  descrip- 
tion of,  490. 

Kingsley,  Charles,  quoted,  174,  180,  257,  586. 

Knowledge,  desire  for,  469 ;  outline  of,  497 ; 
of  persons  addressed  by  the  orator,  555. 

Kossuth,  quoted,  171,  485,  487,  488,  507,  510, 
S94- 

Laconic  speech,  228. 

Lady  of  the  Lake,  394. 

Lafayette,  quoted,  21. 

Lamb,  Charles,  brilliancy  of,  243  ;  racy,  258  : 
quoted,  434. 

Lampoon,  442. 

Landor,  quoted,  19,  441;  copiousness  6i, 
241. 

Languid  style,  237. 

Latin  language,  contributes  elements  to 
English,  12;  many  simple  words  of  Latin 
origin,  16 ;  importance  of  Latin  element, 
17 ;  a  source  of  new  words,  41 ;  objection- 
able words  from,  43  ;  euphony,  260 :  har- 
mony, 297. 

Latin  literature,  figures  of  speech,  69;  varia- 
tion of  connectives,  281  ;  pathetic,  480; 
mediaeval  hymns,  481. 

Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  vocabulary  of,  13  ; 
introduction  to,  394. 

Lecky,  quoted,  98. 

Lecture,  the  modem,  its  aim,  317. 

Lee,  Henry,  245. 

Les  Miserables,  331. 

Lingard,  history  by,  317 ;  bias  of,  328. 

Literary  aesthetics,  409  ;  genius,  467. 

Literature,  general  departments  of,  descrip- 
tion, 489-492 ;  narration,  493-495 ;  exposi- 
A  A  2 


tion,  496-498;  oratory,  499-561  ;  dialogue, 
562-564  ;  drama,  5t>5-S73  \  poetry,  571- 
607. 

Litotes,  135. 

Livingstone's  Travels,  490. 

Livy,  affluence  of  style  of,  59  ;  quoted,  212  ; 
status  of,  328. 

Locke,  aim  of,  314- 

Logic,  differs  from  rhetoric  in  respect  of  argu- 
ment, 357  ;  definition  of,  358. 

Logical  order  of  thought,  defined,  342 ;  in 
narration,  343 ;  concurrent  streams,  344 ; 
retrogression,  345  ;  explanatory  narrative, 
346  ;  summary,  347  ;  exposition,  348  ; 
proof,  349  ;  refutation,  350 ;  speeches  ana- 
lyzed, 351  ;  logical  power  in  oratory,  561. 

Longfellow,  vocabulary  of,  13  ;  epithets  of, 
137;  suggestive  style  of,  257,  262;  inven- 
tion of,  325  ;  quoted,  585,  587,  589,  590. 

Longinus,  treatise  on  the  sublime  by,  64;  defi- 
nition of  amplification  by,  145;  quoted, 157, 
>94t  544  ;  sources  of  the  sublime  in,  429. 

Love,  in  literature,  472. 

Lowell,  J.  K.,  quoted,  107, 119. 

Lucian,  quoted,  439  ;  dialogues  of,  446. 

Lucretius,  expository  poetry  of,  498, 

Luther,  501. 

Lycidas,  Milton's,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Lyrical  introduction  in  drama,  395. 

Lyric  poetry,  objective  narration,  494 ;  sub- 
jective narration,  495  ;  definition  of^  599. 

Lytton,  Lord,  vocabulary  of,  13;  versatility  <^ 
242  ;  mannerism  of,  269  ;  quoted,  299,  308 ; 
aim  of,  317 ;  subjective  narration  by,  495. 

Macaulay,  style  of,  4;  vocabulary  of,  13; 
quoted,  35,  49,  55,  59,  76.  95,  96,  no,  112, 
120,  136,  157,  160,  170,  176,  190,  231,  234, 
248, 254, 585 ;  affluence  of  style  of,  59  :  brill- 
iancy of,  243  ;  mannerism  of,  269 ;  word- 
painting  of,  292,  299 ;  aim  of,  315;  Whig 
sy-mpathies  of,  317  ;  invention  ofi  318,  325  ; 
bias  of,  328  ;  summary  ofi  347 ;  compre- 
hensiveness o^  382  ;  description  by,  492. 

Macbeth,  scenery  in,  323;  status  of,  331; 
classification  o^  334  ;  order  of  thought  in, 
352;  verisimilitude,  369;  introduction  to, 
395- 

Mackintosh,  Sir  James,  245  ;  status  of,  329; 
proposition  of,  361  ;  digression  of,  390 ; 
quoted,  390,  506,  518,  545. 

Madrigal,  599. 

Malachi,  Book  of,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Malapropism,  25. 

Male  rhymes,  594. 

Man  of  Lawes  Tale,  Chaucer's,  vocabulary 
of,  13. 

Mandeville,  10,  258. 

Manner,  269. 

Mannerism,  269. 


556 


Ifidex. 


Manufactures,  497. 

Marlowe,  quoted,  186,  422. 

Marseillaise,  3S»  3'7- 

Marsh.  G.  P.,  analysis  of  English  by,  12. 

Martial,  quoted,  439. 

Martineau,  James,  quoted,  52,  239,  289. 

Masculine  style,  235. 

Masque,  566. 

Massi\-e  style,  235. 

Mathematics,  497. 

Maxim,  75. 

Meagre  style,  246^ 

Mean  style,  309. 

Medea  of  Euripides,  491. 

Melancholy,  475. 

Meleager,  quoted,  439. 

Melodrama,  566. 

Melvill,  Rev.  Henry,  quoted,  86. 

Menace,  473. 

Menander,  472. 

Merchant  of  Venice,  classification  of,  334. 

Metabole,  90. 

Metalepsis,  131. 

Metaphor,  100;  one  living  thing  for  another, 
lot  ;  one  inanimate  thing  for  another,  102  ; 
inanimate  for  li\'ing  things,  103 ;  inanimate 
things  endowed  with  life,  104 ;  ornament- 
al. 105 ;  explanatory,  106,  107 ;  faults  in 
use  of,  loS ;  mixed,  109 ;  mixed,  not  al- 
ways objectionable,  1 10 ;  catachresis,  1 1 1 ; 
allegory,  112  ;  in  illustrative  style.  250;  in 
epigrammatic  style,  2 ; 

Metastasis,  159. 

Method,  defined,  310;  invention,  318-325; 
point  of  view.  326-332;  classification,  333- 
339 ;  order  of  thought,  340-355  ;  finding  of 
arguments  and  presentation,  356-392  ;  in- 
troduction and  conclusion,  393-406. 

Methods  of  experimental  inquiry,  Mdl's,  366 

Metonymy,  130. 

Metre,  effect  on  language,  35 ;  quantitative, 
578 :  accentuated,  582  ;  iambic,  584  ;  tnv 
chaic.  5S5  ;  anapxstic,  586  ;  dactylic,  587 ; 
interchange  of,  591. 

Metrical  romance,  simplicity  of,  10;  pathetic, 
481  ;  definition  of,  598. 

Middlemarch,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Midsummer-Night's  Dream,  vocabulary  of, 
13  ;  ideal  of,  322. 

Mill,  J.  S.,  style  ol,  307;  four  experimental 
methods  of  inquiry  by,  366  ;  autobiography 
of,  491 ;  stibjective  narration  by,  495. 

Miller,  Hugh,  perspicuity  of,  7. 

M  ilman,  quoted,  53  ;  compared  with  Macau- 
lay»  59- 

Milton,  quoted,  i,  20,  21,  35,  61,  94,  102,  no, 
115,  116,  120,  136,  140,  141,  148,  150.  »5». 
'55.  157.  »6o,  163,  166,  180,  189.  197.  '98, 
200,  208.  211.  224,  235.  236,  262,  297,  298, 
299,  422,  426,  427,  430,  467.  473.  475.  485. 


486,  589,  591,  593,  595 ;  vocabulary  of,  13  ; 
a  source  of  allusion,  120 ;  epithets  of,  137  ; 
alliteration  in,  186  ;  harmony,  295  ;  inven- 
tion of,  320,  324,  325  ;  description  by,  490 ; 
subjective  narration  by,  495 ;  expository 
poetry  by,  498. 

Mirabeau,  559. 

Mock  heroic,  437. 

Modem  drama.  570. 

Modem  idea  of  beautiful,  423. 

Modesty  in  orator,  396. 

Modifying  words,  276. 

Monotony,  246. 

Montagu,  Lady  M.  W.,  197. 

Montgomery,  James,  quoted,  178,  584  ;  ex- 
pository poetry  by,  498. 

Moore,  Thomas,  quoted,  94,  105,  474,  485, 
584,586. 

Moral  affections,  470. 

Morality  plays,  112,  232,  568. 

Moral  qualities  of  an  orator,  56a 

Moral  sublime,  427. 

Morris,  Gouvemeur,  quoted,  21. 

Morris,  William,  quoted,  157;  narrative  po- 
etry by,  495. 

Motif  in  literature,  331. 

Motion,  a  source  of  the  beautiful,  416 ;  in  de- 
scription of  objects,  490. 

Motley,  vocabulary  of,  13  ;  invention  of,  325. 

Mottoes,  antithetical,  75. 

Miihlbach,  Louisa,  313. 

Murchison,  Sir  Roderick,  7. 

Muse  in  poetry,  116. 

Music  in  wor^  293. 

Musical  terms  applied  to  poetr>',  308. 

Mystery,  use  of^  in  fiction,  352  ,  plays,  112, 
232,  s6& 

Nabob  of  Arcot's  Debts,  Burke's  speech  on, 

geireralization  of,  383  ;  exordium  of,  396. 
Naivete,  258. 

Names  of  men  a  source  of  new  words,  41. 
Napoleon's  Overtures,  Fox  on  Rejeaion  of, 

351- 
Narrative,  subject-matter  defined.  311 ;  clas- 
sification, 334  ;  order  of  thought,  343  ;  ex- 
planation, 346  ;  order  of  thought  compared 
with  dramatic  354  ;  introduction  in,  394 ; 
definition  of,  493  ;  objective  narration,  494  ; 
subjective  narration,  495 ;  poetry,  598. 
National  movements  a  source  of  new  words, 
I      41  ;  songs,  599. 
Natural  objects  in  description,  49a 
Neale,  Dr.,  quoted,  584,  585. 
!  Necessity  of  the  case,  in  oratory,  513. 
I  Negation,  r7i. 

I  New  compound  words.  45  ;  faulty  use  of,  46. 
j  New  ideas  a  source  of  new  words,  41. 

New  Timon,  quoted,  445. 
I  New  verbs,  41. 


Index. 


557 


New  words,  numerous,  39 ;  absorbed  into  the 
language  in  the  past,  40 ;  sources  of,  41  ; 
rapid  increase  of,  42  ;  objectionable  use  of, 

43,  44- 

Newcomes,  323. 

Newman's  Apologia,  495,  501. 

Newspapers,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Nibelungenlied,  10. 

Nicarchus,  quoted,  439. 

Nichol,  490. 

Nicholas,  Czar,  quoted,  139. 

Night  Thoughts,  Young's,  quoted,  315. 

Nomenclature  of  metres,  588  ;  of  verses,  596. 

*'  Nor"  changed  for  "and,"  281. 

Norman  conquest,  effect  of,  on  English,  12. 

Norman  French  superimposed  on  Anglo- 
Saxon,  24. 

Novel,  the,  with  a  purpose,  317;  defined, 
323 ;  status  of,  331 ;  plot  of,  353  ;  sources 
of  interest  in,  370. 

Novelists  classified,  353. 

"Now"  changed  for  "and,"  281. 

Oath,  486. 

Obsolete,  words,  32  ;  terminations  and  mean- 
ings, 33  ;  in  religious  literature,  34 ;  in  po- 
etry, 35  ;  in  fiction,  36 ;  return  of,  to  gener- 
al use,  38. 

Occasion  for  speaking,  judicious  selection  of, 
557- 

O'Connell,  Daniel,  quoted,  149,  487. 

Ode,  599 ;  on  Immortality,  Wordsworth's, 
vocabulary  of,  13. 

Odyssey,  simplicity  of,  10 ;  aim  of,  316:  sta- 
tus of,  331  ;  conclusion  of,  401. 

CEdipus  Tyrannus,  331  :  dramatic  order  of 
thought  in,  352  ;  at  Colonus,  47a 

O'Gahagan,  a  burlesque,  437. 

Oliver  Twist,  231. 

Onomatopoeia,  294  ;  poetry,  295  ;  prose,  396. 

Onus  probandi,  330. 

Open  style,  258. 

Opera,  566. 

Oracular  style,  307. 

Orator,  qualifications  for,  551-561. 

Oratory,  chief  study  of  ancient  rhetoricians, 
4  ;  Quintilian's  classification  of,  4  ;  defini- 
tion of,  311;  art  of  persuasion  in,  315; 
stages  of,  330  ;  introduction  in,  396  ; 
conclusion  of,  405  ;  explanation  of,  499 ; 
tactics  of,  503-525;  artifices  of,  526-532; 
attack  and  defence  in,  533-542  ;  display  of 
feeling  in,  543-550;  qualifications  for,  551- 
561. 

Order  of  thought,  defined,  340 ;  chronolog- 
ical, 341  ;  logical,  342  ;  in  narrative,  343  ; 
concurrent  streams  in,  344 ;  in  retrogres- 
sion, 345  ;  in  explanatory  narrative,  346  ; 
in  svunmary,  347 ;  in  exposition,  348 ;  in 
proof^  349 ;  in  refutation,  350 ;  examples, 


351 ;  dramatic,  352;  scenic,  353  ;  in  narra- 
tive and  dramatic  writing,  354  ;  general 
rule  for,  355. 

Order  of  words,  1 88. 

Oriental  literature,  style  of,  4 ;  imagery  in, 
loS  ;  allegory  in,  1 12. 

Orientalisms,  41,  43. 

Origin  of  language,  294. 

Ornament,  303. 

Ornamental  composition,  i. 

Ornate  style,  303. 

Ostentation,  308. 

Outburst  of  feeling  in  oratory,  544. 

Oxymoron,  83. 

Padding,  246. 

Paine,  Robert  Treat,  quoted,  246. 

Paine,  I'homas,  quoted,  245. 

Painting,  analogous   to    Belles-lettres,  292 ; 

ancient  and  modem,  423. 
Pall  Mall  Gazette,  vocabulary  of,  13 ;  quoted, 

135,  181,  271. 
Panegyric,  548. 
Panoramic  description,  335. 
Parable,  113. 
Paradiastole.  80,  92. 
Paradise  Lost,  status  of,  332;  classification 

of,  334.  33  s;  characters  in,  430;  pathetic, 

482 ;  description  in,  491 ;  debates  in,  503. 
Paradoxum,  519. 
Paragraph,  290,  498. 
Paraleipsis,  528. 
Parallel,  figures  of,  86 ;  diexodus,  87  ;  tricola, 

88 ;  diallage,  89  ;  metabole,  90 ;  exergasia, 

91  ;  paradiastole,  92. 
Parallelism,  577. 
Paregmenon,  183. 
Parental  affection,  470. 
Parenthesis,  55,  204. 
Parenthetical,  clauses,  51 ;  unity,  55  ;  figures, 

defined,  204 ;  commentum,  205  ;  appositio 

et  explanatio,  206. 
Parison,  83. 
Parker,  Theodore,  154. 
Parliamentary   debate,   502  ;    conclusion   of 

Brougham's  speech  on  Parliamentary  Re- 
form, 405  ;  compliment  in,  506. 
Parody,  444. 
Paronomasia,  123,  450. 
Parcemiac  figures,  defined,  222 ;  proverb,  223 ; 

apophthegm,  224. 
Part  for  the  whole,  128. 
Partiality  in  historians,  317. 
Pasquinade,  441. 
Passions,  defined,  471 ;  love,  472  ;  aversion, 

473  ;  happiness,  474  ;  sorrow,  475. 
Past  events,  mention  of,  in  oratory,  520. 
Pastoral  poetry,  603. 
Paternal  aflfection,  470. 
Pathetic,  defined,  478 ;  in  Sacred  Scriptures, 


558 


Index. 


479  ;  in  classical  literature,  480 ;  in  medi- 
x\'al  literature,  481 ;  in  modem  literature, 
483 ;  an  animating  element  in  literature, 
483. 

Patriotism,  470. 

Paul,  St.,  climax  of,  160,  t6i  ;  quoted,  216, 
220,  233  ;  exordium  of,  396 ;  physical  dis- 
advantages of;  as  an  orator,  559. 

Peel,  Sir  Robert,  quoted,  170,  176,  206. 

Peltier,  Jean,  Sir  James  Mackintosh's  speech 
on,  status  of,  329 :  proposition  in,  361 ; 
conclusion  of,  405  ;  compliment  in,  506 ; 
indirect  reply  in,  S40  ;  extravagance  of  ex- 
pression in,  54S. 

Percontatio,  202. 

Periodic  structure,  49. 

Periphrasis,  29,  132. 

Permission  in  oratory,  510. 

Persian  literature,  140. 

Personification,  115;  with  exclamation,  197. 

Perspicuit)',  de6ned,  7  ;  divisions  of,  8  ; 
sources  of,  9;  in  words,  simplicity,  10-17; 
precision,  18-26;  purity,  31-48;  in  sen- 
tences, arrangement  of  words,  50,  51  ; 
unity.  52-56  ;  clearness  of  conception,  57  ; 
conciseness,  58  ;  diffiiseness,  59  ;  repe- 
tition. 60  ;  digression,  61 ;  loose  style,  63 ; 
sometimes  not  aimed  at,  63. 

Pemosion,  rhetoric  the  art  of^  i  ;  an  aim  of 
composition,  3>5.  3'7- 

Persuasive  introduction,  397. 

Persuasiveness,  in  style,  64 ;  definition  of,  65  : 
general  divisions  of;  66  ;  figures  of  speech 
in,  67,  225 ;  energy,  226-237  ;  vivacity,  238- 
246 ;  different  styles  associated  with,  247- 
258. 

Phantasia,  tio. 

Philanthropy,  470. 

Philips,  Ambrose,  157. 

Phillips,  Charles,  quoted,  147,  150,  151,  170, 
254- 

Phillips,  Wendell,  quoted,  514,  515,  530: 
epigrammatic  style  of,  555 ;  courage  of, 
560. 

Philosophy,  497. 

Photographic  fiction,  323. 

Physical  advantages  in  oratory,  559. 

Physical  science,  497. 

Pickwick  Papers,  vocabulary  of,  13 ;  aim  of, 
331  :  Order  of  thought  in,  353. 

Picturesque,  423. 

Piers  Plowman,  vision  of,  vocabulary  of,  13  ; 
allegory  of,  112;  quoted,  186,  579  »  ^tire 
of,  445- 

Pilgrim's  Progress,  vocabulary  of,  13;  popu- 
larity of,  15  ;  a  source  of  allusion,  120  ;  aim 
of,  315  ;  status  of,  331. 

Pitt,  anal>^b  of  oration  on  refusal  to  nego- 
tiate with  Napoleon,  351 ;  exordium  of, 
396 ;  amplification  in,  379 ;  command  of 


subject  by,  552 ;  courage  of;  560 ;  intellec- 
tual qualities  of,  561. 

Pity,  475- 

Place,  unity  of,  423. 

Plagiarism,  122. 

Plato,  definition  of  rhetoric  by,  i ;  quoted, 
^39  :  compared  with  Xenophon,  495. 

Plautus,  invention  of,  319 ;  puns  of;  451. 

Please,  the  aim  to,  316, 3x7. 

Pleonasm,  218. 

Pleonastic  figiu^s,  defined,  217;  pleonasm, 
218;  analepsis,  319  ;  polysyndeton,  220. 

Ploce,  183. 

Plot,  333  ;  importance  as  compared  with 
character,  353. 

Plutarch,  495. 

Poe,  vocabulary  of,  13;  allegory  by,  112; 
repetition  of  words  by,  175 ;  suggestive 
style  of,  257  ;  mannerism  of,  269 ;  onoma- 
topoeia, 295  ;  quoted,  585. 

Poetry,  vocabulary  of,  13  ;  effert  on  lan- 
guage, 35;  order  of  words  in,  189;  eu- 
phony, 261;  defined,  311;  exposition  in, 
498 ;  discussed,  571  ;  diflfers  from  prose  in 
sentiment,  572  ;  in  form,  573  ;  exhibits 
highest  power  of  language,  574  ;  expres- 
sion for  emotions,  575  ;  defined,  576  ;  ver- 
sification, 577-583 ;  metres  and  feet,  584- 
592  ;  oesural  pause,  593  ;  rhyme,  594  ; 
blank  verse,  595  ;  nomenclature  of  verses, 
596 ;  species  of,  597  ;  narrative,  598  ;  lyric, 
599  ;  dramatic  600  ;  descriptive,  601  ;  di- 
dactic, 602  ;  pastoral,  603  ;  satirical,  604  ; 
humorous,  605 ;  many  poems  share  the 
characteristics  of  several  classes,  606 ;  new 
development  in  versification,  607. 

Poet's  Vow,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Point  of  view,  327. 

Pointed  expression  for  wit,  433. 

Political  songs,  599. 

Polj-ptoton,  183. 

Polysyndeton,  320 ;  compared  with  asynde- 
ton, 231- 

Pope,  vocabulary  of,  13  ;  quoted,  18,  19,  21, 
47.  76,  79»  81,  83,  129,  176,  183,  227,  253, 
262, 295, 397. 302, 308, 459,  589, 593 :  a  source 
of  allusion,  iso ;  epithets  of,  140;  apoph- 
thegms of,  234  ;  expository  poetry  by,  498. 

Popular  books,  15  ;  style,  258. 

Porson,  quoted,  440. 

Portrayal  of  character  by  antithesis,  76. 

Portuguese  language,  260. 

Possibility  contrasted  with  reality,  521. 

Power,  sublime  in,  425  ;  love  of,  467. 

Pnecursio,  516. 

Praemunitio,  518. 

Praise  in  oratory,  506, 

Prayer,  116. 

Preacher,  attitude  of,  towards  audience,  555. 

Precision,  defined,   x8  ;    substantive   terms. 


Index. 


559 


19 ;  attributive  terms,  20  ;  predicative 
terms,  21  ;  clearness  of  conception,  22  ; 
care  in  use  of  words,  23  ;  synonymous 
words,  24  ;  impropriety,  25  ;  vague  words, 
26  ;  verbosity,  27-30  ;  antithesis,  76  ;  con- 
ducive to  energy,  230  ;  united  with  onoma- 
topoeia, 296 ;  harmony,  300. 

Pre-eminence,  467. 

Preface,  399. 

Preparation  for  what  is  to  follow,  518. 

Preparatory  introduction,  397. 

Prepositions,  280. 

Prescott,  325. 

Present  time  in  narration,  117. 

Presentation  of  arguments,  376 ;  clearness 
of  statement  and  strengthening  of  ai^gu- 
ments,  377  ;  transition  in,  378  ;  amplifica- 
tion in,  379 ;  diminution  in,  380  ;  conden- 
sation in,  381  ;  comprehensiveness  in,  382  ; 
generalization  in,  383  ;  defiuileness  in, 
384  ;  description  in  oratory,  385  ;  em- 
phasis of  propositions,  386 ;  assertion, 
387  ;  denial,  388  ;  apophthegm,  389  ;  di- 
gression, 390  :  repetition  of  propositions, 
^01  ;  recapitulation,  392. 

Press,  the,  30. 

Pretentious  style,  307. 

Pricke  of  Conscience,  quoted,  176. 

Prisoner  of  Chillon,  vocabulary  oi,  13. 

Proctor,  description  by,  490. 

Proecthesis.  521. 

Professional  science,  497. 

Profound  style,  307. 

Progressio,  162. 

Prohibition,  485. 

Prolepsis,  525. 

Promissio,  514. 

Prometheus  Bound,  ideal  in,  322  ;  status  of, 
331  ;  order  of  thought  in,  352  ;  conclusion 
of,  404  ;  Unbound,  ideal  in,  322. 

Pronouns,  52. 

Proof.  330  ;  order  of  thous^t  in,  349 ;  expla- 
nation, 363. 

Prop)er  names,  to  designate  a  class,  138 : 
tend  to  energy,  234. 

Proportion,  a  source  of  the  beautiful,  418. 

Proposition,  sometimes  identical  with  status, 
327  ;  general  and  particular  for  classifica- 
tion, 339 ;  defined,  361. 

Prosapodosis,  84. 

Pros-  fiction,  vocabulary  of,  13 ;  conclusion 
in,  401  ;  narrative,  494  ;  subjective  narra- 
tion in,  495. 

Protest,  487. 

Proverbs,  antithesis  in,  76 ;  alliteration  in, 
1 86  ;  defined,  223  ;  explicit,  231. 

Psalm,  599. 

Puerile  style,  304. 

Pulpit,  verbosity  in,  30 ;  status  and  text  in 
oratory,  329. 


Pun,  451. 

Purity,  defined,  31;  obsolete  words^  32-39; 
I      new  words,  39-46 ;    general   remarks  on, 
j      47  ;  in  grammar  and  idiom,  48. 
I  Purpose  of  writer,  to  instruct,  313  ;   to  con- 
vince, 314;   to  persuade,  315;   to  please, 
316;  union  of  different  aims,  317. 
Puttenham  on  new  words,  40. 
Pym,  quoted,  149,  177. 

Quaintness,  258. 

Quantity  in  metre,  518. 

Qualifications  for  an  orator,  551 ;  command 
of  subject,  552  ;  fertility  in  resources,  553  ; 
conciliatory  demeanor,  554 ;  knowledge  of 
persons  addressed,  555  ;  adaptation  of 
self  to  intelligence  of  audience,  556 ;  ju- 
dicious selection  of  occasion  for  si)eaking, 
557 ;  should  not  aim  at  too  much,  558 ; 
physical  advantages,  559 ;  moral  qualities, 
560 ;  intellectual  qualities,  561. 

Quarles,  quoted,  79  ;  quaintness  of,  358. 

Question,  327,  330. 

Quincey,  Josiah.  quoted,  387,  458,  519. 

Quintilian,  definition  of  rhetoric  by,  t  ; 
quoted,  4,  5,  67,  84,  91,  131,  229,  241,  532 ; 
classification  of  metaphors  in,  100, 115;  defi- 
nition of  climax  by,  160 ;  hyi>erbole  of,  163  ; 
invention  in,  319;  status  defined  by,  337; 
refutation  by,  350;  irony  defined  by,  456. 

Quiz,  449. 

Quotation,  defined,  121  *,  in  illustrative  style, 
349. 

Rabelais,  satire  of^  446. 

Racy  style,  358. 

Raleigh,  Sir  W,,  quoted,  76,  167. 

Rant,  306. 

Rape  of  the  Lock,  437. 

Rapid  mention,  516. 

Rasselas,  315. 

Raven,  Poe's,  vocabulary  of,  13 ;  allegory  in, 

112. 
Raw-son,  George,  quoted,  1 16. 
Real,  the,  321. 
Reason  assigned,  523. 
Reasoning,  359. 

Recapitulation  in  arguments,  392. 
Reditus,  390. 

Reference  to  previous  matter,  396. 
Refrain,  596. 
Refusal  to  negotiate  with  Napoleon,   Pitt's 

oration  on,  analyzed.  351. 
Refutation,  330  ;  order  of  thought  in,  350. 
Regressio,  181. 
Regret,  476. 
Reid,  Dr.,  aim  of,  314. 
Rejection  of  Bonaparte's  overtures,  oration 

by  Fox,  analyzed,  351 ;  conclusion  oi,  405  ; 

supposed  case,  532. 


560 


Index. 


Relative,  beautiful,  411  ;  pronoun,  50.  ' 

Relati\'ity,  figures  of,  definition,  72  ;  arising  ' 
from  idea  of  contrast,  73-84  ;  from  percep-  , 
tion  of  resemblance,  85-126  ;  from  idea  of  j 
contiguity,  127-142.  ' 

Religio  Laid,  vocabulary'  of,  13.  j 

Religion,  epithets  in,  different  forms  of, 
«39-  i 

Religious  affections,  470 ;  literature,  admits 
obsolete  words,  34-38 :  hymns,  1 16 ;  pa- 
thetic, 482  ;  subjeaive  narration  in,  495 ; 
songs,  599. 

Remonstrance,  487. 

Remorse,  475. 

Removal  of  troops  from  Boston,  Chatham's 
speech  on,  conclusion  of,  405. 

Renaissance,  423. 

Repartee,  453- 

Repentance,  475. 

Repenting,  in  oratory,  529,  53a. 

Repetitio  creba,  175. 

Repetition,  60 ;  emphatic,  172 ;  of  words,  a 
violation  of  euphony,  264  ;  sometimes 
necessary,  365;  of  propositioiu  in  argu- 
ment, 39. 

Reportiog,  502. 

Rqirebeiision,  485. 

Reproach,  485. 

Reproof,  485. 

Resemblance,  figares  of^  definition  of,  85; 
parallel.  86-92  ;  comparison,  93-99 ;  meta- 
phor, 100- 1 10;  catachresis,  iii  ;  allegoiy, 
112  ;  parable,  113  ;  fable,  114  ;  personifica- 
tion, 115;  apostrophe,  116;  vision,  117; 
allusion,  118-120;  quotation,  tai  ;  plagia- 
rism, 122  ;  other  figures,  123-126. 

Residues,  Mill's  method  of,  366. 

Responsio  sibi  ipsi,  203. 

Retort,  452,  549- 

Retrenchment  of  words,  239. 

Retrogression,  345,  390. 

Retrospective  conclusion,  406. 

Revelry.  474. 

Revenge,  473- 

Revival  of  letters,  423 :  preaching,  order  of 
thought  in,  353. 

Rh.ipsody,  306. 

Rhetonc,  definition  and  derivation  of  term, 
I ;  main  di\'isions  of  subject,  2  ;  vocabulary 
of  treatises  on,  13;  difference  from  logic 
with  regard  to  argument,  351  ;  style,  3- 
309 ;  method,  310-406 ;  emotions,  407- 
488  :  departments  of  literature,  489-607. 

Rhetorical  style  as  a  fault,  306. 

Rhetoricians  formerly  discussed  oratory  only, 

Rhodian  oratory,  4. 
Rhodomontade,  306. 

Rhyme,  effect  of,  on  language,  35  ;  verse, 
594-  i 


Rhjrthm  in  poetry,  298 ;  in  prose,  299 ;  in 
verse,  595- 

Richard  the  Third,  Shakespeare's,  dramatic 
opening  of,  354. 

Richardson,  Samuel,  323. 

Richness  of  style,  303. 

Richter,  quoted  by  De  Quincey,  299. 

Ridiculous,  defined,  432;  wit,  433  ;  humor, 
434 ;  wit  and  humor  in  English  literature,  ' 
435 ;  the  ridiculous  in  literature,  436 ;  with- 
out a  purpose,  437  ;  with  a  purpose,  438 ; 
epigram,  439 ;  squib,  440 ;  pasquinade, 
441  :  lampoon,  442  ;  bon  mot,  443  ;  parody, 
444  ;  satirical  poetry  in  general,  445  ;  satir- 
ical prose,  446  :  special  forms  of,  447  ;  ban- 
ter, 448  ;  chafi^  449  ;  paronomasia,  450 ; 
pun,  451  ;  retort,  452  ;  repartee,  453  ; 
double  -  entendre,  454  ;  buffoonery,  455  ; 
irony,  456 ;  innuendo,  457  ;  sarcasm,  458 ; 
sneer,  459 ;  j)ower  of  ridiculous,  460 ; 
legitimate  use  of.  461  ;  abuse  of,  462. 

Rienzi,  Lord  Lytton's,  vocabulary'  of,  13. 

Rights  of  Jurors,  Erskine's,  status  of,  329. 

Rivers,  epithets  applied  to,  139. 

Robertson,  Dr.  W.,  style  of,  235. 

Robertson,  Rev.  F.  W.,  vocabulary  of,  13  ; 
quoted,  60,  80  ;  outline  of  sermon  by,  339. 

Robinaon  Crusoe,  vocabulary  of,  13  ;  popu- 
larity of,  IS  ;  a  source  of  allusion,  120. 

Rock  of  Ages,  a  hymn,  1 10. 

Rogers,  S.,  vocabulary  of,  13  ;  quoted,  14, 
422. 

Rolle,  Richard,  de  Hampole,  quoted,  55, 
176. 

Roman  satire,  445 :  writers,  invention  of,  3 19. 

Romance,  423. 

Romantic  school  in  literature,  433. 

Rosetti,  495. 

Rousseau's  Confessions,  495. 

Rules,  how  far  useful,  5. 

Ruskin,  copiousness  of,  241 ;  description  by, 
490. 

Russell,  Lord  John,  quoted,  223;  W.  H., 
quoted,  117  ;  classification  by,  335. 

Russian  Armament,  speech  by  Fox,  contrast 
in,  374  ;  personal  attack  by,  535  ;  testimony 
of  adversary  turned  against  himself,  542. 

Ruth,  book  of,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

*'  S"  sound  in  English,  261, 263. 

Salutation,  198. 

Sand,  George,  ideal  of,  323  ;  order  of  thought 

in,  353- 
Sappho,  quoted,  157. 
Sarcasm.  125,  45S,  SSo- 
Satire,  445- 
Satirical  poetry,  445,  604 ;  prose,  446 ;  songs, 

599- 
Savannah  la  Mar,  De  Quince/s,  vocabulary 
of,  13. 


Index. 


561 


Saxe,  John  G.,  quoted,  585. 

Sayings,  current,  139. 

Scandinavian  poetry,  186. 

Scenery  in  fiction,  323. 

Scenic  description,  335 ;  order  of  thought 
in,  353- 

Schonberg-Cotta  Family,  314- 

Science,  a  source  of  new  words,  41  ;  place  in 
classification  of  knowledge  for,  497  ;  con- 
troversies in,  501. 

Scientific  writings,  494. 

Scorn,  473. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  vocabulary  of,  13  ;  quoted, 
•  120,  174.  »78»  198.  200.  236.  473.  584*  586; 
epithets  of,  137  ;  versatility  of,  242  ;  word 
painting  of,  292;  aim  of,  316;  creative 
genius  of,  316  ;  ideal  of,  323  ;  invention  of, 
324 ;  character  and  plot  united  by,  353  ; 
description  by.  490 ;  compared  with  Byron, 
492  :  objective  narration  by,  495. 

Scottish  humor,  435. 

Scriptures,  simplicity  of,  10 :  figures  of 
speech  in,  68,  86,  114;  allusion  in,  120; 
quoted,  160,  161,  216,  220,  223,  430,  486, 
488,  577  ;  inversion  in,  196;  pleonastic  fig- 
ures in,  218  ;  energy,  236. 

Seasons,  Thomson's,  315. 

Secret,  use  made  of,  in  fiction,  352. 

Self-depreciation  in  oratory,  505. 

Self-esteem,  466. 

Self-preservation,  465. 

Sensation  novels,  plot  in,  353. 

Sentence,  short  and  long,  49 ;  arrangement 
of  words  in,  50,  51,  54  ;  unity  in,  52,  53,  54; 
close  of,  284. 

Sentimental  style,  306. 

Sequence,  580. 

Sermocinatio,  201. 

Sesquipedalian  style,  307. 

Severity  of  style,  235. 

S^vign^,  Madame  de,  443. 

Seward,  William  H.,  quoted,  139. 

Shakespeare,  vocabulary  of,  13  ;  quoted,  19, 
21,  82,  87,  94,  95,  130,  133,  151,  i6o,  186, 
189,  194,  200,  224,  227,  297,  422,  431,  452, 
454.  473.  475.  485.  487.  5»8,  519,  523,  530, 
584  ;  new  words,  40  ;  mixed  metaphors  in, 
109,  no;  a  source  of  allusion,  120;  epi- 
thets of,  140 ;  energy  of,  236 ;  versatility  of, 
242  ;  invention  of,  325 ;  order  of  thought 
in,  354  ;  pathetic  in,  482. 

Sheil,  quoted.  155,  486. 

Shelley,  vocabulary  of,  13  ;  quoted,  13,  19, 
86,  97,  no,  i86,  200.  239,  257,  266,  422  ;  epi- 
thets of,  140  ;  spirituelle  in,  258  ;  invention 
of,  324  ;  sublimity  of,  430  ;  subjective  nar- 
ration by,  495. 

Sheridan,  quoted,  149,  153,  547  ;  invention 
of,  319  ;  status  of,  329  ;  proof  by,  349 ;  de- 


scription by,  385  ;  exordium  of,  396  :  pero- 
ration of,  405  ;  repartee  of,  453  ;  suspense 
of,  517  ;  superficial  attainments  of,   552  ; 
florid  passages  in,  555. 
I  Side  thrust,  in  oratory,  537. 
!  Siege  of  Corinth,  introduction  of,  394. 
'  Sign  for  thing  signified,  130. 

Significatio,  131. 
!  silence,  a  source  of  the  sublime,  425. 

Silver  age,  4. 

Similarity  compared  with  analogy,  373. 

Simile,  93-96- 

Simple  structure  in  sentences,  49-52. 
1  Simplicity,  9  ;    defined  and  illustrated,  10  ; 
I      concrete  more  simple  than  abstract,  \  i ; 
produced  by  words  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin, 
I      12-15;  by  many  Latin  words,  16,  17;  con- 
ducive to  energy,  227. 

Simpson,  R.,  quoted,  451. 
'  Sincerity,  560. 
'  Sintram  and  his  Companions,  allegory  of,  112. 

Skinner's  Etymologicon,  40. 

Slang,  a  source  of  new  words,  41  ;  nature  of, 
371. 

Smith,  Alexander,  quoted,  1x5  ;  Piazzi, 
quoted,  276 ;  Sydney,  quoted,  107,  235, 433, 
448,  449;  brilliancy  of,  243. 

Smoothness  of  style,  302. 

Sneer,  459. 

Soberness  of  style,  235. 

Social  attraction,  power  of,  467 ;  science,  497. 

Solecism,  48. 

Solomon's  Song,  quoted,  136. 

Song,  599. 

Sonnet,  599. 

Sophocles,  486  ;  characters  of,  569. 

Sound,  resemblance  to  thing  signified,  295, 
296;  a  source  of  the  beautiful,  417 ;  of  the 
sublime,  425. 

South,  Dr.  R.,  166. 

Southey,  onomatopoeia,  295;  objective  de- 
scription by,  495. 

Space,  sublime  in,  425. 

Spanish,  style,  4;  language,  260;  drama,  57a 

Spartan  brevity,  228. 

Species  put  for  genus,  128. 

Spectre  of  the  Brocken,  De  Quincey's,  vo- 
cabulary of,  13. 

Spence,  Sir  Patrick,  131. 

Spenser,  vocabulary  of,  13;  Faerie  Queene, 
allegory  of,  112  ;  aim  of,  316  ;  invention 
of.  324,  325  ;  subjective  narration  by,  495. 

Spirituelle  style,  258. 

Spondee,  592. 

Squib,  440. 

Stabat  Mater,  481. 

Stage  fright,  566. 

Stanza,  596. 

Status,  definition  of,  327;  where  the  aim  is 


562 


Index. 


to  instruct,  328;  to  convince  or  persuade, 
329;  leading  stages  of  oratory,  330;  where 
the  aim  is  to  please,  331  ;  title,  332. 

Steele,  simplicity  of,  10;  aim  of^  315. 

Sterne,  style  of,  4;  simplicity  of,  10;  quoted, 
212 ;  open  style  of,  258. 

Stiff  style,  305. 

Stilted  style,  306. 

Stockdale,  £rskine*s  speech  for,  causative 
argument  in,  369  ;  amplification  in,  379 ; 
control  of  emotion  by,  546. 

Story,  Joseph,  quoted,  528;  William  Wet- 
more,  297. 

Stnflord,  quoted,  81. 

Strengthening  of  arguments,  377. 

Strong  expressions,  268. 

Strophe.  596. 

Stubbs.  Constitutional  History  by,  495. 

Style,  definition  of,  3;  differences  in,  4;  gen- 
eral divisions  of,  6;  perspicuity  in.  7-13; 
persuasiveness  in,  64-25!^  ;  harmony  in, 
259-309;  periodique  and  coup^.  49;  qual- 
ities that  tend  to  energy,  235;  felicity  of. 
245;  illustrative,  247-251;  epigrammatic. 
252-255  ;  classical,  256  ;  suggestive.  257  : 
terms  applied  to  25S  ;  ease  of,  302  ;  faults 
in.  62,  63.  237,  246.  255.  25S,  305.  309- 

Subject.  327.  330;  matter.  311 ;  choice  of,  318- 
325 ;  arrangement  of.  326-335. 

Subjective  description.  491 ;  narration,  495. 

Sublime,  defined.  424  ;  in  nature,  the  vast 
and  boundless,  425 :  awe,  426  ;  in  morals. 
427 ,  in  literature,  428  ;  sources  of.  accords 
ing  to  Longinus.  429;  Ulustrations  of.  430; 
difference  between  sublime  and  beautiful, 
43« 

Substantive  epithets.  137. 

Success  or  failure,  conclusion  referring  to, 
406. 

Sue.  Eugene,  plot  by.  353. 

Suetcmius,  317. 

Suggested  meaning.  492. 

Suggestive  style.  257. 

Summary.  347. 

Sumner,  quoted.  525  ;  courage  of.  56a 

Sun,  New  York,  vocabulary  of.  13. 

Supplices  of  itschylus.  395. 

Supposed  case.  531. 

Suppressio.  215. 

Suspense,  in  narrative,  352  ;  in  oratory, 
517- 

Sostentatio,  517. 

Swedenborg.  322. 

Swift.  167.  221 ;  quoted.  439. 

Swinburne,  style  in  prose.  306 ;  narrative  by, 
495- 

Syllable,  repetition  of,  263. 

Syllepsis,  123. 

Syllogism,  367. 


I  Sjrmmetry  in  Greek  art,  423. 
Sympathy.  475. 
Syniploce.  184. 
Synathroismus,  151. 
Synchesis,  192. 

iSjmecdoche.  128. 
Synesis,  210. 
Syoexeogmenon,  153. 
j  Synoeceosis,  81. 
I  Synonymia.  185. 
j  Synonymous  words,  34. 
j  Synthesis,  338,  377- 

Table  of  percentage  of  Anglo-Saxon  words  in 
English.  13. 

Tacitus,  conciseness  of.  58.  59;  antithesis  of, 
I  75;  energy  of,  228;  bitterness  of.  317;  or- 
der of  thought  in,  343;  quoted,  403;  de- 
scription of  chaiacter  by,  495. 

Tactics  of  oiatory,  defined,  503 ;  conciliation, 
504;  sell'-depieciaticn,  505;  compliment  or 
praise,  506;  thanks.  J07;  concession,  508; 
confession,  509;  p>crmission,  510;  consulta- 
tion with  the  audience,  511 ;  emplias)s.5i2; 
statement  oi  the  necessity  of  the  ca?e,  513; 
statement  of  a  future  occurrence,  514  ; 
dwelling  upon  a  pioposition,  515;  rapid 
mention,  516;  holding  the  audience  in  sns- 
pense,  517;  preparation  for  what  is  to  fol- 
low, 518;  unexpected  statement,  519;  refer- 
ence to  the  past.  520;  possibility  contrasted 
with  reality,  521;  explanation,  522;  state- 
ment of  tlie  reason  of  a  thing.  523 ;  answers 
to  objections,  524;  anticipation  of  objec- 
tions, 525. 

Tale,  in  ix>etry,  598. 

Tales  from  Shakespeare,  354. 

Talleyrand,  quoted,  443. 

Tame  style.  237. 

Task.  Cowper's,  vocabidary  of,  13;  aim  ofi 

3«5 
Tassu,  invention  of,  325. 
Taste.  412. 

Tautology.  28. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  afflueiKe  of,  59;  copiottsness 
of.  241. 

I'axation  no  tyranny.  380. 

Technical  science,  497. 

Telegraph,  London,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Temperance,  353. 

Tempest.  Shakespeare's,  322. 

Tennyson,  vocabulary  of.  13  ;  apostrophe  in, 
116;  epithets  of.  140;  quoted.  175.  176,181, 
186,  211,  228,  262,  293.  295.  431.  474.  485. 
585.  586,  587.  589-  590.  594;  versatility  of. 
242  ;  music  in  words  in,  293  ",  invention 
of.  325;  parody  on,  444;  against  Bulwer, 
445;  pathetic,  482 ;  subjective  narration  by, 
495- 


Index. 


563 


Terence,  quoted,  195  ;  invention  of,  319  ; 
puns,  451. 

Terms,  defined,  360. 

Terse  style,  235. 

Testimony,  in  argument,  370  >  of  adversary 
turned  against  himself,  542. 

Teutonic  iauguages,  260;  mythology,  463. 
.  Thackeray,  style  of,  10;  quoted  21,  156,  239, 
249,  251,  257,  584;  a  source  of  allusion,  120; 
classical  English  of  256;  open  style  of, 
258;  purity  of  English  in,  316;  aim  of, 
317;  realistic  in,  323,  325;  characieis  of, 
353;  satire  of,  446;  patlietic  in,  482;  sub- 
jective narration  by,  495- 

Thanks  in  oratory.  507. 

'"Ihat,"  repetition  of,  264. 

Tlieban  epopoeia,  324. 

Theognis,  quoted,  439. 

Theology,  497. 

Thompson,  Darcy  Wentworth,  quoted,  95. 

Thomson's,  James,  Castle  of  Indolence,  iia; 
quoted,  112,  297,  486;  expository  poetry, 

Thucydides.  conciseness  of,  59 ;  antithesis  in, 
75;  criticised  by  Longinus,  194;  energy  of, 
228;  impartiality  of,  317;  invention  of,  318, 
325;  order  of  thought  in,  343;  introduction 
of,  394- 

Time,  unity  in,  423. 

Times,  London,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Title,  the.  332- 

Titles  of  books,  alliterative,  186. 

Tmesis,  193. 

Tone  in  style,  293.  298, 

Topiady,  quoted,  585. 

Tragedy,  conclusion  in,  404;  defined,  566. 

Transgressio,  164. 

Transition,  in  style,  287;  formal,  288;  ele- 
gant, 289;  paragraphs,  290;  in  argument, 
378,  in  oratory,  532. 

Treatise,  498. 

Trench's  analysis  of  the  English  language,  12. 

Tribune.  New  York,  vocabulary  of,  13. 

Triplet,  596. 

Trite  style,  246. 

Triumph,  474. 

Trochaic  metre,  585. 

Trojan  epoi)CEia,  324. 

Trollope,  323. 

Trope,  69. 

Tu  quoque,  in  debate,  549. 

Tupper.  M.F.,  258. 

Turner,  Sharon,  12. 

Tyndall,  John,  quoted,  59;  style  of,  307. 

Uhland.  style  of,  357. 
Undine,  112. 

Unexpected  statement  in  oratory,  519. 
Uniformity  in  variety,  a  source  ot  the  beau- 
tiful, 419. 


Unities,  the  three,  423. 

Unity,  defined,  52;  prominence  of  the  princi- 
pal subject,  S3  ;  appended  clause,  54  ;  the 
parenthesis,  55;  long  and  short  sentences, 

56- 

Universities,  influence  on  development  of 
language,  12. 

Unusual  or  striking  presentation,  figures  aris- 
ing from,  exclamatory,  197-199 ;  interroga- 
tive, 200-203 ;  parenthetical,  204-206  ;  el- 
liptical, 207-216;  pleonastic,  217-221;  pa- 
roemiac,  222-224;  epigram,' 225. 

Vague  words,  26. 

Vandyke.  322- 

Vanity  Fair,  Thackeray's,  characters  in,  323 ; 
status  of,  331 ;  order  of  thought  in.  353. 

Variety,  a  source  of  the  beautiful.  419. 

Vastnes.s,  a  source  of  the  sublime.  425. 

Veliemence.  in  style,  235;  in  oratory,  56a 

Veneration,  470. 

Verbosity,  defined,  27;  tautology,  28 ;  circum- 
locution, 29;  in  (he  pulpit  and  in  the  press, 

30. 

Verbs,  new,  41. 

Verisimilitude,  369. 

Versatility,  in  st^e,  34a ;  in  oratory,  561. 

Verse,  596. 

Versification  —  parallelism,  577  ;  quantity, 
578  ;  alliteration,  579  ;  sequence,  580  ; 
Greek  ecclesiastical  metres.  581 ;  accentu- 
ated metres,  582 ;  English.  583 ;  nomencla- 
ture, 596;  new  development,  607. 

Vicar  of  Wakefield,  aim  of,  315. 

Villain,  in  fiction,  373. 

Virgil,  a  source  of  allusion,  120;  quoted,  256, 
269;  invention  of  319. 

Vision,  117;  of  William  concerning  Piers  the 
Plowman,  112. 

Vivacity.  Campbell  on,  64;  general  divisions 
of  the  subject  of  persuasiveness,  66;  defini- 
tion of,  238;  as  it  refers  to  the  thought.  239; 
to  expression.  240;  to  copiousness,  241;  to 
versatility,  242 ;  to  brilliancy,  243 ;  to  vivid- 
ness. 244;  to  felicity  of  style,  245;  faults 
of  style  opposed  to,  246. 

Vividness.  244. 

Vivien,  Tennyson's,  vocabtJary  of,  13. 

Voltaire,  242. 

Vraisemblance.  369. 

Vulgarism,  273. 

Vulgarity,  309. 

Waller,  quoted,  115,  130. 

Walpole.    Horace,    quoted,    49,    205  ;      Sir 
i      Robert,  quoted.  167,  245,  521. 

Wandering  Jew,  Sue's,  status  of,  331. 

War  passion.  473 ;  songs.  599. 

Warburton,  Bishop,  quoted,  443. 
I  Warning,  485. 


564 


Index, 


Wayland,  quoted,  176,  214. 

Weak  style,  237. 

Wealth.  468. 

Webster,  Daniel,  quoted.  158.  254;   aim  of, 

315;  outline  of  speech  against  Hayne.  351 ; 

resembles  Burke,  55s ;  physical  advanuges 

of-  559- 

Wellington,  81. 

Wesley,  C,  quoted,  586.  589.  591. 

Wesley,  is.,  quoted,  439. 

Westminster  Scrutiny,  Fox's  speech  on.  rep- 
etition in,  391;  recapitulation  in.  392;  il- 
lustrative argument  in.  370;  clearness  of 
statement  in,  377 ;  conclusion  of.  405 ;  f>er- 
•onal  attack  in,  535;  defence  turned  to  at- 
tack in,  54 1. 

Whately.  vocabulary  of,  13;  on  energy.  64. 
226;  quoted,  264;  on  causative  argument 
369. 

Wheeler,  History  of  North  Carolina  by, 
quoted,  246. 

"  Which  "*  repeated.  264. 

"While"  changed  for  "and,"  281. 

Whole  for  a  part,  128. 

WUhelm    Teli,    Schiller's,   introduction    of, 

395- 
Wilkes,  physical  disadvantages  (^  559. 


Wilson,  Professor,  128. 

Wit,  antithesis  in,  76 ;  definition  of.  433 ;  in 
literature.  435. 

"With"  for '•and,"2Si. 

Withdrawal  of  expression,  529. 

Wolfe.  C,  quoted.  35.  586,  589,  591. 

Word  painting.  292. 

Words,  obsolete,  32-38  ;  new,  39-44  ;  new 
compounds.  45.  46. 

Wordsworth,  simplicity  of  10;  vocabulary'  of, 
13;  quoted,  20,  86,  88.  106,  116,  131,  198, 
245i  297,  470.  486 ;  mannerism  of,  269 ;  in- 
vention of  322;  sublimity  of,  430;  subjec- 
tive narration  by,  495;  expository  poetry 
of.  498- 

Works  of  art  in  description,  490;  of  man  in 
description,  490. 

Wrath,  473- 

Xenophon.  quoted,  50;  affluence  of  style  in, 
59 ;  compared  with  Plato,  495. 

Young,  Dr.  Edward,  quoted,  79,  82,  87;  ex- 
pository poetry  uf,  498. 

Zeugma,  309. 
Zschokke,  463. 


THE    END. 


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